CHRIST  IN  TYPE 


AND  PROPHECY 


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CHRIST   IN   TYPE   AND 
PROPHECY. 


BY 

Rev.  A.  J.  MAAS,  S. J., 

Professor  of  Oriental  Lanyuac/es  in  Woodsfork  Collrf/r,  Mil. 


Vol.    I. 


New  York,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  - 

Benzioisr    Broi^hkrs, 

Printer.t  to  the  Holy  Ajwfttolic  See. 
1893. 


APPROBATION. 

(^1111  opus  cui  titulus  est  "  C'lirist  in  Tyi)e  and  Prophecy,"  a 
1>.  A.  J.  Maas,  nostrae  Socielatis  sacorclote  coniijositiun  aliqui 
eiiisdtMu  Societatis  revisores,  quibiis  id  conunissum  fiiit,  n-cognoverint 
et  in  luceni  edi  posse  probaverint  ;  facullattni  cdnccdiiiius,  ut  typis 
niiindctur,  si  ita  iis,  ad  quos  pertinet,  videbitiir. 

In  (juoreiu  fideni  lias  litteras  manu  nostra  subscrii)tas  et  sigilio 
Socielatis  nostrae  niunitas  dedinuis. 

T.  J.  CAMrcELl.,  S.J. 
Neo-Ebor.,  (lie  vii.  Non.  Jul.,  anno  1893. 


JmjjvimiUuv. 

+  Michael  Augustinus, 

Ardiiep.  Neo-Eboracencis. 

Nko-Ebor  ,  die  ix.  Cal.  August  ,  anno  1893. 


PopyninnT,  1S01.  nv  T^rxziorR  PnoTnEn.'^ 


PREFACE. 


When  St.  Luke  tells  iis  (Acts  xi.  2G)  that  "at  Aiitioch  , 
the  disciples  were  first  udmed  Christians,"  he  implies  tl.iat 
they  were  Christians  before  they  bore  the  name.  If  Chris- 
tian means  a  believer  in  Christ,  all  that  have  ever  believed 
in  the  Messias— the  Hebrew  equivalent  for  Christ — have 
been  Christians.  And  since  "there  is  no  other  name  ^ 
under  heaven  given  to  men  whereby  we  must  be  saved"  ^ 
(Acts  iv.  12),  all  that  have  been  Saved  from  Adam  to  Noe, 
from  Noe  to  Abraham,  from  Abraliam  to  Moses,  from 
Moses  to  Jesus  Christ,  and  from  Jesus  Christ  to  our  own 
day,  have  been  Ciiristians,  or  believers  in  the  Messias.  It 
does  not  follow  from  this  that  the  Messianic  dispensation  ^ 
has  been  at  a  standstill  ever  since  the  time  of  Adam.  As 
the  sunlight  has  its  dawn,  its  increase,  and  its  noonday 
brightness,  illumining  the  whole  earth,  so  has  the  Sun  of 
Justice  his  dawn  immediately  after  the  fall  of  our  first 
parents,  his  increase  under  the  dispensations  of  the  four 
great  mediators  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  his  noonday 
brightness  on  Thabor,  Calvary,  and  Mount  Olivet,  whence 
he  "enlighteneth  every  man  that  cometh  into  this  world" 
(John  i.  9).  It  is  the  object  of  the  present  work  to  study 
the  rise  and  progress  and  supreme  splendor  of  this  Light 
of  the  AVorld  from  the  inspired  sources  supplied  by  God's 
own  goodness  and  infinite  wisdom. 

The  subject  is  as  many-sided  as  it  is  important  and  inter- 
esting.    For  it  may  be  treated  as  a  weapon  against  the  Jew  ^ 
and  unbeliever,  as  a  crutch  for  the  feeble  in  the  faith,  as 


2  PREFACE. 

ixn  cverflowing  founttiiu  for  tlie  dogmatic  tlieologian,  as  a 
topic  for  the  preaclior,  as  a  iiieditaLioii  for  the  devout,  as  a 
series  of  interesting  facts  for  the  historian  and  the  psycholo- 
gist. Without  extending  this  treatise  to  the  length  that 
would  be  required  if  each  of  tliese  different  views  were 
the  sole  object  of  the  work,  the  author  has  endeavored  to 
combine  them  all  in  sucli  a  manner  that  the  reader  may 
readily  adapt  the  subject  to  his  own  special  purpose.  The 
prophecies  have  been  arranged  under  the  eight  heads  of  the 
Genealogy,  the  Birth,  the  Cliildhood,  the  Names,  the  Of- 
fices, the  Public  Life,  the  Suffering,  and  the  Clory  of  the 
Messias.  This  division  does  not  imply  that  each  predic- 
tion foretells  only  one  event  in  the  life  of  our  Saviour,  nor 
does  it  neglect  the  chronological  development  of  the 
Messianic  doctrine,  as  a  glance  at  the  table  of  contents  will 
show;  but  it  has  been  adopted  chiefly  to  impress  the 
reader  with  the  trutli  that  the  whole  life  of  Jesus  Christ 
has  been  the  object  of  proi)hetic  vision  and  divine  revela- 
tion. 

It  is  with  sincere  sorrow  that  the  author  surrenders  a 
work  that  has  afforded  him  so  many  hours  of  interior  joy 
and  consolation,  but  also  with  the  lively  hope  "  that  the 
God  of  our  liord  Jesus  Christ,  the  Father  of  (Jlory.  may 
give  unto  you  the  spirit  of  wisdom  and  of  revelation,  in 
the  knowledge  of  him"  (Ejjh.  i.  17). 

Woodstock  roi,i,K(iK,  Md., 

Feast  of  tfte  Assumption  of  Our  Lady,  1893. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction, 
chapter  i, 

HISTORY   AND   FORM   OF   THE   PROPHECY-ARGUMENT. 

PAGE 

1.  History  of  the  prophecy-argument 13 

a.  Jesus  uses  it .13 

h.    The  apostles  use  the  argument 14 

c.  The  evangelists  use  it 15 

d.  The  patristic  use  of  the  argument 16 

e.  The  progressive  development  of  Messianic  prophecy 17 

f.  Why  the  argument  was  treated  so  frequently 18 

a.  In  England 18 

fi.   In  France 19 

y.  In  Germany 19 

8.   In  (jfermany,  continued 20 

e.  The  rationalist's  historical  method 21 

C.  Christian  a])ologies 22 

J].   Less  conservative  apologies 23 

^.   Works  which  deal  ])artially  with  the  prophecies 24 

2.  Dialectic  form  of  the  prophecy-argument 24 

a.  Major  premise 25 

h.  Minor  premise 20 

a.  Historical  truth  of  the  prophecies 2G 

1.  The  Old  Testament  books  precede  the  New  Testament..  27 

2.  Siljylline  oracles 27 

8.  The  Book  of  Enoch    28 

a.   Division  of  the  Hook  of  Enoch 29 

6.   Author  of  the  Book  of  Enoch 30 

c.  Time  of  coin])osition  of  the  Book  of  Enoch 30 

4.  The  Book  of  .J ubilecs ,  32 

5.  The  Psalms  of  Solomon 33 

6.  The  ' '  Ascensio  Mosis  ". , 34 

7.  The  Revelation  of  Baruch 34 

8.  The  Fourth  Book  of  Esdras 35 

9.  Talmudic  and  liabhinic  sources 36 

Review  of  the  historical  truth  of  the  prophecies 36 

ft.   Philosophical  truth  of  the  prophecies 37 

1.  Definiteness  of  the  predictions 38 

2.  Agreement  between  i)rediction  and  fulfilment 38 

3.  Three  exceptions 38 

a.  First  exce])tion,  and  answer 39 

h.  Second  excejition  answered 40 

c.  Third  exception.     M.  Nicolas 41 

3 


CONTENTS. 


PAQE 

a.  Ewald's  view 42 

(S.   Keuss"  statement  of  the  difliculty 42 

^.  M.  Seville's  addition 43 

S.  Kuenen's  theory 43 

€.   Kuenen's  view  i'urther  deveUjped 44 

?.  Kuenen's  inetliod  illustrated 45 

Answer  :  1.  The  naturally  ecstatic  state 45 

2.  This   is   nowhere    said   to   belong    especially   to    the 

Hebrews 46 

3.  Fallacy  of  Kuenen's  induction 47 

4.  The  so-called  natural  facts  have  not  yet  been  explained  47 

5.  Ecstasy  is  not  the  criterion  of  propliecy 48 

6.  Even  one  jirojdiecy,  estabiislied  with  certainty,  is  (Jod's 

testimony 49 

7.  Falsely  alleged  unfulfilled  projdiecies 49 

8.  Philistia's  destruction      .    50 

9.  No  time  determined  in  i)re(lictions 51 

10.    Prophecif^s  conceruinir  Israel 52 

y.   Helative  truth  of  the  pro])hecies 53 

1.  Organic  connection  of  the  prophecies 54 

2.  Identity  of  sacred  and  profane  seer 54 

CHAPTER   II. 
THE   GENEK.VL   DIKFLSION   OF    MESSI.\NIC  PROPHECY. 

1.  General  misery 56 

n.   Among  the  Egyi)tians  and  Indians 56 

fr.    Among  the  Persians  and  Mexicans 57 

r.  'i'estimony  of  liunian  sa<rifices  and  other  rites 57 

d.  The  ( ji  reek  sages 57 

c.  The  later  (ireek  writers ., 58 

/.  (ireek  philosophic  thought 58 

<j.   Testimony  of  Homau  writers 59 

2.  (iencral  hope  of   redemption (10 

(I.  '['lie  Persians (iO 

h.  The  Indians 01 

r.  The  Chinese 04 

d.  The  later  Arabians  and  I'ersians. 06 

e.  The  (i reeks 07 

/.  The  (ieruumic  races 08 

(/.  The  Celtic  races 69 

'//.  The  Esthenians 70 

i.    The  tribes  of  liie  Pacilic  islands 70 

/■.  'IMie  Mexicans 71 

/.    The  Peruvians 71 

?w.  Oomiiigo,  the  .Mgontpiin,  etc 73 

;/.   Tlie  {{onuius 73 

(1.   'I'he  l",truscau  sej-rs 73 

(i.   Tlu!  Sibylline  sources 74 

y.    I>es])air  at  non-fulfilment 75 

(5.  Origin  of  Messianic  jirophecy 75 


CONTENTS.  5 

PAGB 

0.  The  Hebrews ...., 76 

a.  To  Solomon 76 

(5.  Chronological  summary 77 

y.  From  Solomon  to  Ezechias 78 

8.   The  prophets 79 

e.    Result 79 

C.   Division  of  prophetical  books 80 

7j.  Chronology  of  the  prophets 80 

^.  Other  prophets 81 

CHAPTER   HI. 

NAME   AND   NATU«E   OF  THE   PROPHETS, 

1.  Verbal  definition 82 

a.  (J reek  etymology 82 

h.   Hebrew  etymology 83 

(ir.  Intransitive  meaning 83 

fi.  Passive  meaning 84 

y.  Active  meaning 84 

c.  Use  of  the  word 84 

a.  Nabi 84 

(i.  Roeh  and  Chozeh 85 

y.  Difference  of  use 86 

8.   Other  names  of  prophets 87 

2.  Definition  from  effects 87 

a.  In  the  New  Testament 87 

b.  In  the  Old  Testament 88 

a.  Prophetic  authority  extends  to  all  Israelites 88 

/i.   Embraces  private  matters 88 

y.  Political  affairs 89 

8.  Religious  questions 89 

3.  Definition  from  psychological  condition  of  the  prophet 90 

a.  Purely  intellectual  or  sensible 91 

h.   Seven  kinds  of  sensible  prophecy 91 

or.  Words 93 

/i.  Visions 92 

1.  Views  of  Philo,  etc 93 

2.  This  theory  rejected 93 

3.  The  prophets  passive  in  their  visions 94 

y.  Dreams 94 

8.   Ecstasy  not  excl  uded , 95 

6.   Prophetic  certainty 96 

4.  Rationalistic  theories 96 

a.  Briggs'  theory 97 

/*.    Riehm's  theory 100 

c.  Verdict  on  Riehm's  theory 103 

<i.   It  is  based  on  a  false  i)nnciple 103 

fi.   Its  assumptions  are  gratuitous ...  104 

y.  The  ]>rocess  of  developnu^nt  is  merely  natural 104 

8.   The  definiteness  of  the  i)rophecies  is  not  explained 105 

6.  The  idea  of  fuHihneiit  is  destroyed ,. 105 


6  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE   I'KOrilKTU;   OFFICE. 

PAGE 

1.  The  exercise  of  the  proplietic  office  was  extraordinary 107 

2.  The  call  to  the  prophetic  office  was  extraordinary 107 

a.  'i'lie  prophetic  order  and  the  prophetic  gift  are  not  converti- 
ble terms 108 

h.    Pro])hetic  S('hools lOS 

"-"    a.   Keasons  for  their  existence 10!) 

/i.    treasons  not  convincing 10!) 

y.  Schools  involved  in  uncertainty 110 

d.  Probable  description  of  the  schools  110 

3.  The  pro])hetic  oHice  was  an  ordinary  institution Ill 

a.  The  i)riests  are  not  the  ordinary  teachers Ill 

b.  Dent,  xviii.  9-22 112 

a.   Reasons  Un-  a])i)]ying  the  text  to  Christ  alone 118 

/i.   Its  ty])iial  reference  to  Christ 114 

y.   Its  literal  reference  to  the  prophets. 110 

c.  The  prophets  were  the  ordinary  teachers 117 

Exception  answered 117 

d    Prophetic  influence  in  the  state 118 

e.    Secondary  functions  of  the  prophets 119 

4.  Pro])hets  and  priests 119 

(f.   They  are  distinct 120 

h.    Not  o])]i()s('d  to  each  other 120 

T).    i'roi)liets  and  kings 121 

0.  The  jjiophets  and  the  Pentateuch 122 

a.  Iniiuntance  of  this  question 12;{ 

b.  Smith's  view   124 

r.    Influence  on  the  historical  books 124 

d.  Exodus,  liCvitii-us,  Numbers 127 

e.  Chronological  order  of  sources 127 

/.  The  licxiilcuch  a  development  of  i)rophetic  doctrine ...  128 

ff.   Th(!  historicid  hypothesis  is  unsound 129 

a.  'Vhi'  coin])osition  is  impossible 12!) 

/i.   Language 1:50 

;'.   Style  of  the  documents 181 

6.    Alleged  repetiti(ms,  contradictions,  etc 181 

e.  Historic  ill  argument 182 

5.    Osee's  testimony 184 

7.  Theology  of  the  iirophets 185 

a.  View  of  (iod 185 

b.  Divine  nanu's 18(5 

C.   'J'he  "  name  of  the  Lord  " 187 

f/.  Mystery  of  the  Holy  Trinity 187 

e.    Prophetic  anthropouiorphism 18S 

8.  Anthroixilogy  of  the  jirophets 189 

a.  (I'eneral  ou"tline 18!) 

/).    iie'riiiniui'  and  end 1^*^ 

r.    SI I Mv' 

Review    \i'2 


CONTENTS.  7 
CHAPTER  V. 

THE   WRITINGS   OF   THE   PKOPnETS. 

PAGE 

1.  The  proplietic  writings  are  inspired 144 

3.  Spolien  and  merely  written  prophecies 145 

8.  Abbreviated  prophecies 145 

4.  Titles  of  the  prophetic  books 14G 

5.  The  prophetic  style 147 

6.  Obscurity  of  the  prophets 147  - 

a.  Reasons  of  obscurity 148 

a.  Confusion  of  tenses 149 

(i.  Fragmentary  character  of  predictions 150 

■y.  The  idea  of  prophecy  does  not  involve  absolute  clearness.  150 

8.  Absence  of  chronological  perspective 151 

€.  Chronological  accuracy  is  not  always  wanting 153 

?.  Prophetic  imagery 154 

1 .  The  typical  sense 1 54 

3.  Allegorical  types.  ...    1 55 

3.  Difference  between  symbols  and  types 15G 

4.  How  to  recognize  the  typical  meaning 157 

5.  The  figurative  sense 158 


Part  I. 

THE  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 
CHAPTER  I. 

THE  MESSIAS   IS   THE   SON   OF   GOD.      Ps.  ii. 

Introduction.     1.   Position  of  Ps.  ii 1(51 

3.   Structure  of  Ps.  ii 1(U 

3.  Author  of  the  Psalm 103 

4.  Subject  of  the  Psalm   1()3 

Text  and  Connuentary 1(57 

Corollary  :  The  Messias  is  the  Son  of  (iod..    17() 

1.   In  the  light  of  Christian  revelation 17(5 

3.  In  the  light  of  the  Old  Testament 176 

A.  Rabbinic  testimony  for  the  Alessianic  character  of  Ps.  ii.  177 

B.  The   Divine   Sonship  of  the  Messias  as  taught  in  the 

Synagogue 179 

CHAPTER   II. 

THE  MESSIAS   IS   THE   SEED   OP  THE   WOMAN.      Gen.  ill.  1-19. 

Introduction.     1.  Mythical  explanation  184 

3.  Symbolical  explanation 184 

3.  Allegorical  explanation 185 

4.  Messianic  character  of  the  passage 186 

Text  and  Commentary 186 


CONTENTS. 


PAaE 
Corollary  :   The  Messianic  character  of  the  passage 207 

1.  Christian  testimony 207 

2.  Kabbiuic  testimony ;]07 

CHAPTER  III. 
THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE   SON   OF   SEM.      Gen.  ix.  18-37. 

Introduction 21 2 

Messianic  character  of  the  passage. . .    212 

Te^  and  Commentary 215 

Corollary:  Prophetic  Summary 220 

CHAPTER   IV. 

THE  MESSIAS   IS  THE  SON  OF  ABRAHAM,    ISAAC,    AND    JACOB. 

Gen.  xii.  1-9  ;  xvii.  1-9  ;  xviii.  17-19  ;  xxii.  16-18  ;  xxvi.  1-5  ; 
xxviii.  10-15. 

Introduction  :  1.  Time  and  i)lace  of  the  prophecies 221 

2.  Messianic  character  of  the  prophecies 22(> 

Text  and  Connnentary 227 

Corollaries  :  1.  Patriarchal  hope 234 

2.  Relation  of  the  patriarchs  to  the  prophecies 234 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE   SON   OF  JACOB.      Num.   xxiv.  15-19. 

Introduction  :  1.  Time  and  occasion  of  the  prophecy 237 

2.  Character  of  the  prophet 238 

3.  Authorship  of  tlie  ])r()])hecy 239 

4.  Unchristian  ajjplications  of  the  prophecy 239 

5.  Messianic  character  of  Balaam's  prophecy 240 

Text  and  Commentary 244 

Corollary:  Projdietic  Summary v 247 

CHAPTER   VI. 
THE  MESSIAS   IS  THE   SON   OF  DAVID. 

Section  I.  The  Son  of  Dand  shall  rule  forever.     II.  Kings  vii.  1-lG; 
I.  Par.  xvii.  1-17. 

Introduction:  1.  History  of  the  prophecy 248 

2.  Authorship  of  the  prophecy 248 

3.  Messianic  character  of  the  projihecy 250 

Text  and  Commentary 252 

Corollary:   Proi)hetic  Summary 255 

Section  II.   The  Son  of  J)(irid  is  tJte  Prince  of  Pastors.     Jer.  xxiii. 
1-8  ;  xxxiii.  14-26. 

Introduction:   1.  Connection  of  the  prophecy  with  its  context.  .  .  .  255 

2.  Jer.  xxxiii.  14-26  is  i)arallel  to  xxiii.  1-8 256 

3.  Subject  of  the  prophecy 257 

Text  and  Commentary 261 


CONTENTS.  9 

PAGE 

Corollaries:  1.  The  faithful  pastor  in  the  house  of  David 363 

3.  The  divine  nature  of  the  Messias  3G4 

3.  The  priests,  princes,  and  pastors  in  a  moral  sense 364 

Section  HI.   The  Mesdas  will  spriiuj  from  the  marrow  of  the  high 
cedar.     Ezech.  xvii. 

Introduction:  1.  Time  and  occasion  of  the  prophecy 365 

3.  Division  of  the  prophecy 366 

3.  The  Messianic  character  of  the  passage 366 

Text  and  Commentary 866 

Corollary:   Messianic  character  of  Ezechiel's  prophecy 369 


Part  II. 

BIRTH  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 
CHAPTER   I. 

PLACE   OF  THE   MESSIAs'    IJIKTIF.       Mich.  V.    3-14. 

Introduction:  1.  Connection  of  the  prophecy  with  the  preceding 

ones 371 

3.  Antichristian  explanation  of  Micheas'  prophecy 373 

3.  Messianic  character  of  the  prophecy 374 

Text  and  Commentary 375 

Corollaries 380 

CHAPTER   II. 

THE   TIME  OF  THE   MESSIAS'   BIRTH. 

Section  I.  The  Blessing  of  Juda.     Gen.  xlix.  8-13. 

Introduction:  1.  Time  and  occasion  of  the  prophecy   383 

3.  Place  of  the  prophecy  in  the  critical  analysis  of  Genesis 383 

3.  Messianic  character  of  the  prophecy 384 

Text  and  Commentary 388 

Corollaries:  1.  More  definite  meaning  of  the  prophecy 395 

3.   Is  the  Messias  of  the  tribe  of  Juda  ? 397 

3.  What  could  the  Jews  understand  of  this  prophecy  ? 397 

4.  Argument  against  the  present  Sj'nagoguo 398 

Section  11.    Daniel's  Seventy  Weeks.     Dan.  ix.  33-37. 

Introduction:  1.  Time  and  occasion  of  the  prophecy..    399 

3.    Unchristian  explanations  of  the  prophecy 399 

3.  Messianic  character  of  the  prophecy 399 

Text  and  Commentary 308 

Corollaries:    Chronological    agreement    between    prophecy    and 

fulfilment 316 

Section  III.    The  Coming  to  the  Temple.     Agg.  ii.  1-10. 
Introduction:  1.  The  historical  connection  of  the  prophecy  with 

its  context 333 


10  CONTENTS. 

PAOE 

2.  Division  of  the  ])ro|)hecy 323 

3.  Exi)!anati()ns  of  the  propliecy 324 

4.  Till!  Messianic  niiture  of  Ag^eus'  i)roi)liecy 32G 

Text  and  Coninientary 328 

Corol  lary :  1 .  The  general  commotion 330 

2.  The  desired  of  the  nations    331 

3.  The  Messianic  i)eace 331 

CHAPTER   III. 
THE  VIRGIN   MOTIIEK.      Is.  vii.  1-17. 

Introduction:  1.  History  and  occasion  of  the  prophecy 333 

2.  Erroneous  explanations  of  the  prophecy 334 

3.  Messianic  nature  of  the  prophecy 335 

Text  and  Commentary 341 

Corollaries:  1.  For  Christians '. 350 

2.  For  Nationalists  356 

3.  For  Jews 356 

CHAPTER   IV. 

THE  rUECUHSOIl  OK  THE   MESSIAS. 

Section  1.    The  Voice  in  the  Desert.     Is.  xl.  1-11. 

Introducti(m:  1.  Connection  of  the  i)rophecy  Avith  the  jirojjhetic 

series  of  Isaias 358 

2.  The  Messianic  character  of  the  prophecy 35*.> 

3.  The  tropological  .sense  of  the  passage 300 

Text  and  Commentary 300 

Corollary 363 

Section  II.     Eliits  the  Prophet.     Mai.  iv.  5,  6. 

Introduction:  1.  Connection  of  the  i)rophecy  with  its  context 303 

2.  Messianic  character  of  the  prophecy 303 

3.  The  Second  Advent 305 

Text  and  Commentary 300 

Corollary 307 


Part  III. 

THE  INFANCY  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 
CHAPTER   I. 

ADORATION    OF   THE  MAGI.      Ps.  ixxi.  1-17. 

Introduction:  1.  Structure  of  the  Psahu 369 

2.  Author  of  the  Psalm 309 

3.  Subject  of  the  Psalm 370 

Text  and  Commentary 373 

Corollarv 376 


CONTENTS.  11 

CHAPTER  II. 
THE  SLAUGHTER  OP  THE  HOLY  INNOCENTS.     Jer.  xxxi.  15-26. 

PAGE 

Introduction:  1.  Connection  of  the  prophecy  with  its  context 378 

2.  Time  of  the  prophecy 379 

3.  Explanations  of  Rachel's  weeping  in  Rama 379 

4.  Messianic  character  of  the  prophecy 381 

Text  and  Commentary 38i 

Corollaries:  1.  The  literal  and  the  typical  sense  of  the  prophecy.  384 

3.  The  extraordinary  manner  of  Christ's  conception 385 

CHAPTER   III. 

THE   FLIGHT   INTO   EGYI'T.      Os.  xi.  1-7. 

Introduction:  1.  Connection  of  the  prophecy  with  its  context 386 

2.   Messianic  character  of  the  prophecy 386 

Text  and  C'ommentary 387 

Corollary 388 


Part  IV. 


y 


THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  MESSiAS  IS  THE  ORIENT.     Zach.  iii. ;  vl.  9-15. 

Introduction:  1.  Connection  of  the  propliecies  with  their  context  389 

2.  Messianic  character  of  the  prophecies 390 

Text  and  Commentary 393 

Corollary 397 

CHAPTER   II. 

THE  MESSIAS   IS  THE   SON   OP  MAN.      Dan.  vli. 

Introduction:  1.   Division  of  the  prophecy 398 

2.  The  time  of  the  prophecy ' 398 

3.  Authenticity  of  the  prophecy 403 

4.  The  prophecy  of  Daniel  has  not  been  taken  from  Babylonian 

sources 406 

5.  Messianic  character  of  Daniel's  prophecy 408 

Test  and  Commentary 411 

Corollary:  The  Son  of  Man 425 

CHAPTER   III. 

THE   MESSIAS   IS   THE   SAAaOUR.      Is.  li.  1-lii.  12  ;   1x11. 

Introduction:   1.  Connection  of  the  prophecies  with  the  context.  426 


12  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

2.  The  Messianic  cliaracter  of  these  passages 428 

Text  and  C'oninu'ntary 430 

Corollary 434 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE   MESSIAS   WILL    BE   THE   ANGEI,   OF  THE  TESTAMENT. 

Mai.  ii.  17-iii.  6. 

Iiitnidtirtion:  The  ^Messianic  cliaracter  of  the  prophecy 435 

1.  The  jdirase  "  My  .\nfrel  "  denotes  John  the  Baptist 435 

2.  The  Ijord  is  .leliovali  himself 436 

3.  The  .\nffel  of  the  Testament  is  the  Mcssias 437 

Text  and  Conmu^ntary ....    438 

Corollaries:    1.  The  divinity  of  the  M-.'ssias 440 

3.   His  coming  to  the  t<'iii]>le  and  liis  ])nrifyinf^  the  Levites.  . .  .  4^10 

3.  An  ari^iinient  ajjaiiist  the  Jews 440 

4,  5.  The  Ivicharistic  sacrifice  and  the  two  advents 440 

CHAPTER   V. 

THE  MESSIAS  IS   THE   SEKVANT   OF   THE  LORD.      Is.  xlix.  1. 

Introduction:  1.   Identity  of  Jehovah's  servant 442 

2.  Messianic  character  of  the  servant  of  the  Lord 443 

3.  Antichristian  exi)lanations 444 

Text  and  Commentary 445 

Corollary 448 

CHAPTER   VI. 

THE   MESSIAS   WILL   BE   THE   EMMANUEL.      Is.  viii.  1-10. 

Introduction:  1.  Connection  of  the  prophecy  with  its  context... .  449 

2.  Erroneous  explanations 419 

3.  Messianic  character  of  the  proi)hecy .      .  450 

Text  and  C(miuientary 450 

Corollaries:    1.   The  land  of  Emmanuel 452 

2.  Juda's  salvation  through  Emmanuel 452 

CHAPTER   VII. 

. THE   MESSIAS   IS   THE   I'RINCE   OF   PEACE.       Is.  ix.  1-7. 

Introduction:   1.  Connection  of  the  prophecy  with  its  context 453 

2.  Unchri.stian  ex]ilanation  of  tlie  ]iroj)liecy 453 

3.  Messianic  character  of  the  prophecy 453 

Text  and  Coninu-ntary 457 

Corollary 458 

APPENDIX. 

IJahhinic  literature 459 


CHRIST  IN  TYPE  AND  PROPHECY. 


INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  I. 
HISTORY  AND  FORM  OF  THE  PROPHECY-ARGUMENT. 

AAVILL  may  be  contested  ou  the  plea  of  defective  for- 
mality in  the  written  document  or  of  the  testator's 
incompetency  to  dispose  of  his  property  in  the  par- 
ticular manner  indicated  in  the  testament.  In  the  contest 
about  the  validity  of  God's  will  and  testament,  now  carried 
on  with  such  earnestness  and  even  bitterness,  the  plea  of  in- 
competence cannot  claim  the  slightest  weight  of  probability. 
All  that  the  tribunal  of  reason  can  investigate  is  the  signa- 
ture with  which  God  has  signed  his  covenant.  This  divine 
seal  attesting  the  reality  of  God's  promises  is  composed 
of  miracles  and  prophecies.  Though  the  latter  are  only  a 
species  of  the  former,  we  must  for  the  present  limit  our 
investigation  to  this  narrower  sphere,  studying  first  the 
nature  and  properties  of  prophecy  in  general,  and  then 
comparing  meaning  with  fulfilment  of  the  particular  Mes- 
sianic predictions. 

1.  History  of  the  Prophecy-argument  :  a.  Jesus  uses 
it. — Before  beginning  our  research  proper,  it  is  of  the  highest 

13 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

importance  to  review  briefly  wliat  may  be  called  the  history 
of  the  Christian  argument  from  prophecy,  and  to  state  its 
strict  dialectic  form.  We  cannot  do  better  than  open  the 
historic  outline  of  the  prophetic  argument  with  the  words 
of  Jesus  addressed  to  his  enemies  :  "  Search  the  scriptures, 
for  you  think  in  them  to  have  life  everlasting:  and  the 
same  are  they  that  give  testimony  of  me"  (Jo.  v.  39).  On 
another  occasion  Jesus  again  appealed  to  the  prophets  : 
"  It  is  written  in  the  prophets  :  and  they  shall  all  be  taught 
of  God.  Every  one  that  hath  heard  of  the  Father,  and 
hath  learned,  cometli  to  me"  (Jo.  vi.  45).  And  to  show  us 
that  this  arguuient  is  intended  not  only  to  confound  the 
enemies  of  revelation,  but  also  to  strengthen  the  faith  of 
believers,  Jesus  speaks  to  the  two  disciples  on  the  way  to 
Emmaus  :  "  0  foolish  and  slow  of  heart  to  believe  in  all 
things  which  the  prophets  have  spoken  I  Ought  not  Christ 
to  have  suffered  these  things,  and  so  to  enter  into  his  glory  ? 
vVnd  beginning  at  Moses  and  all  the  prophets,  he  expounded 
to  them  in  all  the  scriptures  tlie  things  that  were  concern- 
ing him"  (Luke  xxiv.  '^5-2T). 

b.  The  Apostles  use  the  Argument. — The  apostles  were 
not  slow  to  learn  the  use  they  might  make  of  the  prophetic 
writings.  St.  Peter,  addressing  his  brethren  after  Jesus' 
ascension  into  heaven,  speaks  as  follows:  "Men  brethren, 
the  scriptures  must  needs  be  fulfilled  which  the  Holy  Ghost 
spoke  before  by  the  mouth  of  David  concerning  Judas,  who 
was  the  leader  of  them  that  apprehended  Jesus  ..."  (Acts 
i.  10).  A  few  days  later,  on  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  the 
same  apostle  speaks  to  the  assembled  multitude  :  "  This  is 
that  which  was  spoken  of  by  the  prophet  Joel  :  And  it 
shall  come  to  pass,  in  the  last  days  (saith  the  Lord)  1  will 
])our  out  my  spirit  upon  all  flesh:  and  your  sons  and  your 
daughters  shall  prophcs}',  and  your  young  men  shall  see 
visions,  and  your  old  men  shall  dream  dreams  .  .  ."(Actsii. 
10  f.).  On  the  same  occasion  the  prince  of  the  apostles 
a])peals  to  a  Messianic  prophecy  as  a  ])roof  of  Jesus'  resur- 
rection from  the  dead:  "David  saith  concerning  him:  I 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PROPHECY- ARGUMENT.         15 

foresaw  the  Lord  before  my  face  always,  because  he  is  at  my 
right  hand  tliat  I  may  not  be  moved;  for  this  my  heart 
hath  been  glad,  and  my  tongue  hath  rejoiced :  moreover 
my  flesh  also  shall  rest  in  hope,  because  thou  wilt  not 
leave  my  soul  in  hell,  nor  suffer  thy  Holy  One  to  see  cor- 
ruption "  (Acts  ii.  25-27).  And  when  Peter  and  John 
had  healed  the  lame  man  at  the  Beautiful  Gate,  Peter  again 
appealed  to  the  prophecies  in  order  to  convince  his  numer- 
ous audience  that  the  Christ  must  suffer:  "Those  things 
which  God  before  had  showed  by  the  mouth  of  all  the 
prophets  that  his  Christ  should  suffer,  he  hath  fulfilled  " 
(Acts  iii.  18).  In  the  course  of  his  discourse  the  same 
apostle  appeals  to  Moses'  prophecy  as  a  proof  that  Jesus  is 
the  Christ:  "For  Moses  said:  A  prophet  shall  the  Lord 
your  God  raise  up  unto  you  of  your  brethren,  like  unto  me: 
him  you  shall  hear  according  to  all  things  whatsoever  he 
shall  speak  to  you.  And  it  shall  be  that  every  soul  which 
will  not  hear  the  prophet  shall  be  destroyed  from  among 
the  people.  And  all  the  prophets  from  Samuel  and  after- 
wards, who  have  spoken,  have  told  of  these  days"  (Acts 
iii.  22-24).  This  practice  St.  Peter  must  have  continued 
throughout  his  apostolical  life.  In  his  second  epistle  (i.  19) 
he  insists  again  on  the  argument  derived  from  prophecy: 
"  And  we  have  the  more  firm  prophetical  word,  whereunto 
you  do  well  to  attend,  as  to  a  light  that  shineth  in  a  dark 
place,  until  the  day  dawn,  and  the  day-star  arise  in  your 
hearts."  Here  the  prince  of  the  apostles  exhorts  us  to  be 
guided  by  the  light  of  prophecy  even  to  that  time  when  the 
light  of  glory  shall  be  our  lamp. 

c.  The  Evangelists  use  it. — The  prophetic  argument  is  so 
often  urged  in  the  Gospel  according  to  St.  Matthew  that  we 
can  here  only  indicate  some  of  the  principal  references 
without  stating  either  prophecy  or  fulfilment  fully.  Com- 
pare Mat.  i.  23  and  Is.  vii.  14;  Mat.  ii.  G  and  Mich.  v.  2; 
Mat.  ii.  15  and  Os.  xi.  1;  Mat.  ii.  18  and  Jer.  xxxi.  15; 
Mat.  iii,  3  and  Is.  xl.  3;  Mat.  iv.  15  and  Is.  ix.  1 ;  Mat.  viii. 
IT  and  Is.  liii.  4;  Mat.  xi.  5  and  Is.  xxxv.  5;  Mat.  xi.  5  and 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

Is.  Ixi.  1;  Mat.  xi.  10  and  Mai.  iii.  1;  Mat.  xi.  14  and  Mai, 
iv.  5;  Mat.  xii.  17  f.  and  Is.  xlii.  1;  Mat.  xii.  39  and  Jon. 
ii.  1;  Mat.  xiii.  14  and  Is.  vi.  9;  Mat.  xiii.  35  and  Ps.  Ixxvii. 
(Ixxviii.)  2;  Mat.  xv.  30  and  Is.  xxxv.  5;  Mat.  xvi.  4  and 
Jon.  ii.  1;  Mat.  xxi.  13  and  Is.  Ivi.  7;  Mat.  xxiv.  15  and 
Dan.  ix.  27  ;  Mat.  xxvi.  24  and  Ps.  xl.  (xii.)  10;  Mat.  xxvi. 
31  and  Zach.  xiii.  7;  Mat.  xxvi.  54  and  Is.  liii.  10;  Mat. 
xxvi.  5G  and  Lam.  iv.  20;  Mat.  xxvii.  9  and  Zach.  xi.  12; 
Mat.  xxvii.  35  and  Ps.  xxi.  19.  The  prophecies  of  Isaias 
are  cited  between  fifty  and  sixty  times  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  the  Psalms  are  quoted  not  less  than  seventy 
times,  and  very  frequently  as  bein^  predictive.  Ezechiel, 
Abdias,  Nalium,  and  !So])honias  seem  not  to  be  directly 
appealed  to  in  the  New  Testament  writings;  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  "  Prophets  "  are  often  spoken  of 
together  (Mat.  ii.  23;  Acts  xiii.  40,  xv.  15)  as  l)eing 
authoritative. 

d.  The  Patristic  Use  of  the  Argument. — Still  when  we 
keep  in  mind  that  the  argument  from  prophecy  is  one  of 
the  mainstays  in  tlie  apology  for  revelation,  it  may  surprise 
us  at  first  sight  that  it  is  emj)loyed  so  rarely  in  the  New 
Testament.  But  the  references  to  the  Old  'I'estament 
prophecies  are  so  scarce  in  the  New  Testament  not  from 
any  special  design,  but  because  the  occasions  for  their  use 
were  so  few.  In  point  of  fact,  some  Messianic  i)rophecies 
of  the  greatest  import  have  been  entirely  omitted  in  the  New 
Testament,  e.g..  Is.  ix.  5,  6;  Jer.  xxiii.  5,  6;  Zach.  vi.  12,  13. 
The  epistle  of  Barnabas  (71-120  A. d.)  and  Justin's  dialogue 
against  Trypho  (d.  about  1G3  a.d.)  begin  a  more  extensive 
and  systematic  discussion  of  the  Messianic  predictions. 
Justin's  work  may  be  called  a  missionary  jiroduction,  and 
the  author  is  in  so  far  inferior  to  his  opponent  as  he  is  ac- 
(piainted  with  the  Old  Testament  only  through  the  second- 
ary source  of  the  8ei)tuagint.  Origen  (d.  254  a.d.)  was  in 
this  respect  better  equipped  to  meet  (in  his  eighth  book) 
Celsus  (about  247  a.d.)  on  the  heathen  and  the  Jewish 
misrepresentations  of  the  person  of  Christ.     But  his  work 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PROPHECY  ARGUMENT.  17 

suffered  from  the  arbitrary  allegorization  in  which  the 
Alexandrian  school  imitated  Philo.  The  historical  inter- 
pretation of  the  Antiochian  school  brought  about  a  reaction, 
and  Theodore  of  Antioch,  bishop  of  Mopsuestia,  trans- 
gressed in  this  way  the  lines  of  prudence  and  even  of  truth 
(d.  428  A.D.). 

e.  The  progressive  Development  of  Messianic  Prophecy, — 
The  preparation  for  the  Christian  redemption  through  a 
progressive  and  connected  history  in  the  Old  Testament 
seems  not  to  have  been  noticed  till  the  time  of  the  middle 
ages.  The  patristic  writers  appeal  to  single  prophecies  or 
state  in  general  terms  that  the  prophetic  argument  for 
Christianity  is  a  powerful  one;  but  they  do  not  perceive 
the  full  historic  perspective  of  the  Messianic  predictions 
(cf.  Chrysost.,  in  Jo.  hom.  xix.  n.  2,  t.  lix.  col.  121;  hom. 
li.  n.  1,  col.  283-284;  August.,  de  Civ.  Dei,  1.  xviii.  c.  41,  n. 
3,  t.  xli.  col.  602).  AVith  Cocceius  (d.  1G69)  began  the 
method  of  treating  the  Old  Testament  in  periods.  It  is  to 
Catholic  writers  that  we  owe  the  first  deeper  insight  into 
prophecy.  Pascal  (Pensues,  cd.  Molinier,  t.  ii.  p.  11), 
Bossuet  (Discours  sur  I'liistoire  universelle;  lettres  sur  le 
"  shilo,"  cf.  Analecta  juris  pontificii,  187G,  col.  1011  sqq.), 
and  Huet  (Demonstration  cvangclique,  Paris  1C79)  have 
given  clear  proof  of  their  thorough  appreciation  of  proph- 
ecy. Spener  and  his  school  greatly  advanced  the  same 
study.  They  were  followed  in  their  endeavors  by  Abadie 
(Accomplissement  des  propheties  en  Jesus-Christ,  La  Haye 
1689),  Camphausen,  S.J.  (Passio  Jesu  Christi  adumbrata 
in  figuris  et  prophetiis  antiquae  legis  a  SS.  PP.  et  Scripturae 
sacrse  interpretibus  explicata,  Coloniis,  1704),  Clarke  (Con- 
nexion of  Prophecies  in  the  Old  Testament  and  Application 
to  Christ,  London,  1725),  Kidder  (Demonstration  of  the 
Messiah,  London,  1726),  John  Gill  (The  Prophecies  of  the 
Old  Testament  Literally  Fulfilled  in  Jesus,  London,  1728), 
Gillies  (Essays  on  the  Prophecies  relating  to  the  Messiah, 
Edinburgh,  1773),  Maclaurin  (Essay  on  the  Prophecies  re- 
lating to  the  Messiah,  London,  1778),  Hales  (Dissertations  on 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

the  Principal  Prophecies,  2d  ed.,  London,  1802),  and  Robin- 
son (Proiihccies  on  the  Messiah,  London,  1812).  Meanwhile 
Schoettgen's  IIon\?  Ilebraicje  et  Talmndica?  (vol.  ii.  de 
Messia,  1742)  had  appeared,  a  work  of  so  eminent  scholar- 
ship that  it  scarcely  stands  in  need  of  any  further  com- 
mendation. Its  only  defect,  if  defect  it  can  be  called,  con- 
sists in  making  Christian  theologians  out  of  Jewish  rabbis. 
/.  Why  the  Argument  was  Treated  so  frequently:  a.  L\ 
England. — It  is  not  surprising  that  about  this  period  so 
many  treatises  on  the  Prophecies  were  written;  for  the 
supernatural  character  of  Christianity  had  been  attacked 
on  all  sides  and  in  all  countries.  Grotius  (15S3-1G4G)  and 
Spinoza  (1632-1677)  had  prepared  the  way  for  rationalism 
by  corrupting  the  genuine  idea  of  scriptural  inspiration. 
Pereyrius,  too,  minimized  the  supernatural  element  in 
Cliristianity  by  reducing  the  miracles  to  the  smallest  pos- 
sible number  (1594-1676).  In  England  it  was  under  the 
fair  name  of  Deism  that  Christianity  was  attacked.  Her- 
bert Cherbury  (De  veritate  pront  distinguitur  a  revelatione, 
a  verisimili,  a  falso,  1629),  Jolm  Toland  (Christianity  Not 
Mysterious),  Tindal  (Christianity  as  Old  as  Creation,  1740), 
AVoolston  (On  the  Miracles  of  Christ),  Collins  (On  Free 
Thought),  Bolingbroke,  Chubb,  Whiston,  Shaftesbury, 
Whittey,  Somers,  Wharton,  Shrewsbury,  and  Buckingham 
are  some  of  tlie  principal  apostles  of  Deism.  It  is  true 
that  on  the  other  hand  appeared  several  direct  refuta- 
tions of  the  above  works  and  writers.  Locke  (Reasonable 
Christianity,  1695),  Kortholt  (De  tribus  impostoribus  mag- 
nis  liber,  Eduardo  Herbert,  Thoma?  Hobbesio,  et  liene- 
dicto  Spinosai  oppositus,  16S0),  Browne  (Refutation  of 
Toland's  Christianity  Not  Mysterious,  1696),  James  Foster 
(Defence  of  the  Usefuliu^'^s,  etc.,  of  the  Christiai:  religion 
against  Tindal,  1731),  John  Conyl)eare  (Defence  of  Revealed 
Religion,  in  answer  to  Christianity  as  Old  as  Creation,  1732), 
and  Leland  (A  View  of  the  Principal  Deistical  Writers  that 
have  ap))earod  in  England  in  tlie  Last  and  Present  Century, 
3  vols,,  1754-1756),  uphold  the  supernatural  character  of 


mSfORT  OF  THE  PROPHECY-ARGUMENT.  19 

Christianity.  But  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  some  of  these 
apologetic  works  have  done  more  harm  than  good  to  their 
cause. 

ft.  In  France. — In  172G  Voltaire  had  to  take  refuge  in 
England,  where  he  lived  for  nearly  two  years  in  the  society 
of  the  "  Freethinkers."  Here  he  was  thoroughly  imbued 
with  the  writings  and  the  views  of  Bolingbroke,  so  that  his 
own  works  after  his  return  to  France  in  172S  took  the  same 
tone.  It  is  wortliy  of  notice  that  Voltaire  took  his  difficul- 
ties against  the  inspired  writings  and  against  revealed  truth 
in  general  from  the  classical  commentaries  of  Calmet. 
This  method  of  copying  the  learned  scholar's  objections 
without  so  much  as  mentioning  their  solution,  or  even  the 
source  from  Avhich  they  had  been  taken,  is  truly  worthy  of 
the  parent  of  the  French  Encyclopedists. 

y.  In  Germany. — Strauss  remarks  that  in  the  battle 
against  supernatural  religion  England  has  prepared  the 
arms,  France  has  taught  the  world  how  to  use  them,  and 
Germany  has  been  the  first  to  attack  the  orthodox  citadel  of 
Sion.  The  Wolfian  philosophy  may  be  said  to  have  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  direct  attack  by  freeing  the  human 
mind  from  the  strict  letter  of  the  Bible  (about  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century).  Laur.  Schmidt  (Bibel  von 
"Wertheim,  1735)  went  so  far  as  to  translate  the  Pentateuch 
into  the  language  of  the  AVolfian  philosophy.  The  critical 
Bible  editions  of  Wetstein  (1751)  and  Griesbacli  (1779) 
began  to  shake  men's  confidence  in  the  inspired  text. 
Edelmann  (1746)  was  an  advocate  of  pantheism,  and  placed 
the  origin  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  time  of  Constan- 
tine  the  Great.  Barlidt  (1784)  makes  Jesus  the  tool  or  the 
ruler  of  a  secret  society.  Nicolai  indirectly  propagates  ra- 
tionalism in  his  "Bibliotheca  Germanica  Universa  "  (1705- 
1792);  and  in  his  "Life  and  Opinions  of  Master  Sebaldus 
Nothanker  "  he  proposes  a  model  parson,  who  teaches  his 
congregation  when  to  rise  in  the  morning,  how  to  take  care 
of  their  health,  how  to  keep  their  tools,  how  to  cultivate 
their  fields,  and    other  matters   of   practical    importance. 


20  iNTliODUCnON. 

About  this  time  things  had  conic  to  such  a  pass  that  few 
ministers  were  willing  or  able  to  expLiin  the  Gospel  to  the 
faithful.  John  Albert  Bengel  (il.  1752)  and  Chrisfian 
Augustus  Crusius  (d.  1775)  had  modified  the  idea  of  in- 
spiration, no  longer  regarding  the  prophets  as  merely  pas- 
sive, but  also  as  active  instruments  of  the  divine  spirit. 
Bnt  the  climax  was  reached  when  Lessinghegan  to  publish 
the  "  Fragments  of  Wolfenbiittel,"  the  work  of  his  deceased 
friend,  /^uniuel  Riimarus  (d.  17(38),  author  of  the  "Apol- 
ogy for  the  Reasonable  Worshippers  of  God."  In  the 
"Fragments  of  an  Unknown"  (1774)  tolerance  for  the 
Deists  is  inculcated  ;  in  the  following  publication  (1777) 
revelation  in  general  is  attacked,  and  it  is  shown  especially 
that  there  is  no  religion  in  the  Old  Testament  ;  finally,  the 
third  })art  of  the  fragments  is  directed  against  Jesns  and 
his  apostles  (177.S),  contending  that  Jesus  mainly  intended 
to  restore  the  theocracy;  that  John  the  Baptist  was  his 
accomplice;  that  the  Temple  was  violated  on  the  first  Palm 
Sunday;  that  Jesus  died  amid  loud  complaints  and  moaTi- 
ings,  and  that  the  apostles  feigned  the  resurrection.  The 
founders  of  the  Christian  religion  are  thus  represented  as 
so  many  deceivers. 

d.  In  Germany,  ro?;//;??/cfZ. — The  first  opponent  of  Les- 
sing  was  Gotze.  Ilis  apology  for  Christianity  excited,  how- 
ever, more  amusement  than  conviction.  The  ins])iration 
of  scripture,  he  thought,  must  be  denied,  all  miracles  re- 
jected. Semler  (Dec.  18,  1725  -March  14, 1791)  was  a  more 
logical  writer.  Still,  explaining  the  life  of  Jesus  as  a  mere 
accommodation  to  the  surrounding  circumstances  he  may, 
perhaps,  defend  Jesus  against  the  charge  of  wilful  deceit, 
but  cannot  grant  him  a  higher  position  than  that  of  a 
teacher  of  religion  and  morality.  PauJus  {^o])i.  1,  17<)1  — 
Aug.  10,  1851)  went  a  step  farther.  In  his  Leben  Jesu 
(1828)  he  explains  the  miraculous  in  the  gospels  as  result- 
ing from  the  subjective  impressions  of  the  evangelists. 
Illustrating  his  view,  he  a])peals  to  the  different  impression 
producccl  on  three  ditTerent  observers  by  the  same  natural 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PROPHECY- ARGUMENT.  21 

phenomenon, — e.g.,  the  Cartesian  diver.  The  physicist  sees 
in  it  the  application  of  a  general  natnral  law,  the  edu- 
cated man  admires  it  as  a  wonder  of  nature,  but  the  simple 
workingmau  feels  like  reverencing  the  same  fact  as  a 
miracle  transcending  all  the  powers  of  nature.  The  apos- 
tles and  evangelists  were  similarly  impressed  by  Jesus' 
words  and  works.  Here,  again,  Christ's  divine  character 
is  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  a  scientific  hypothesis.  Thus 
far  the  would-be  apologists  of  Christian  revelation  have 
tried  to  guard  the  historical  character  of  the  gospels. 
Strauss  (Jan.  27,  1808— Feb.  9,  ISTl)  did  not  leave  even 
the  historical  character  of  truthfulness  to  the  gospel- 
records.  In  his  "  Leben  Jesu  "  (1835,  180-1:,  1874)  the  life 
of  Christ  is  explained  as  a  gathering  of  pious  myths,  even 
as  there  are  mythical  personages  in  nearly  every  nation 
and  literature.  We  hardly  need  to  add  Bdur's  system 
(Hept.  G,  1809— April  13, 1882),  according  to  which  the  New 
Testament  records  are  the  expressions  of  two  dilferent 
ecclesiastical  parties,  the  Petrine  and  the  Pauline,  and  of  a 
third  party  endeavoring  to  reconcile  the  two. 

6.  The  Rationalists'  Historical  Method. — It  is  natu- 
ral that,  in  the  history  of  the  prophetic  interpretation,  we 
should  have  touched  on  the  literature  of  the  life  of  Christ. 
For,  since  type  and  antitype,  prediction  and  fulfilment,  are 
essentially  correlative  terms,  the  view  taken  of  the  one 
necessarily  influences  the  interpretation  of  the  other.  Con- 
sequently, we  find  a  series  of  writers  who  carry  out  the 
rationalistic  view  of  prophecy  according  to  a  historical 
method.  As  representatives  of  this  school  we  may  men- 
tion Staehelin  (Messianische  Weissagungen,  Berlin,  184-7), 
Anger  (Posthumous  lectures  "  Uber  die  Geschichte  der 
Messiauischen  Idee,"  edited  by  Krenkel,  Berlin,  1873),  Hit- 
zig  (d.  1875  ;  "  Vdrlesungen  iiber  biblische  Theologie  und 
Messianische  AYeissagung  des  Alten  Testaments,"  edited  by 
Kneucher,  Karlsruhe,  1880),  and  above  all  Kuenen  (The 
Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel,  London,  1877).  The 
latter  dismisses,  on  principle,  all  that  is  supernatural,  and 


32  INTRODUCTION. 

re<rarcls  etliicul  inoiiollieisn  as  the  kernel  and  tlie  soul 
of  all  prophecy.  Diilim  (Theologie  der  Propheten,  Bonn, 
1875)  starts  with  the  hypothesis  that  the  Old  Testament 
literary  proi)hets  belong  to  an  earlier  age  than  the  Mosaic 
Law,  and  that  in  the  writing  of  every  prophet  there  is  a 
special  system  of  teaching  by  means  of  Avhich  he  hinders 
or  helps  the  progress  to  greater  freedom  in  religious 
matters.  Duhm  thus  combines  Wellhausen's  theory  of  the 
Old  Testament  literature  with  Baur's  typical  principle 
applied  in  the  New  Testament. 

C.  CiiHiSTiAX  Apologies. — Henxjstenhcrg's  (d.  18G9) 
"  Cliristologie  des  Alten  Testaments"  (Berlin,  1829-1835, 
3  vols.;  2d  ed.  1854-1857)  formed  a  new  epoch  in  the 
treatment  of  the  Messianic  prophecies  from  a  Christian 
point  of  view.  Cunningham  in  his  "Remarks"  had  de- 
fended the  Christian  standpoint  against  the  Jewish  view 
set  forth  in  David  Levi's  "dissertations  on  the  Prophecies 
in  the  Old  Testament"  (1793-1796,  London;  cf.  Salvador, 
Ilistoire  des  institutions  de  MoVse  et  du  pcuple  lu'breu, 
Paris,  1828).  But  Hengstenberg  defended  Christianity 
against  the  latest  attacks  of  critical  rationalism.  Ilofniann'.s 
(d.  1877)  Avork  entitled  "  Weissagung  und  Erf  iillung " 
(Nordlingen,  18-41-1844,  in  two  parts)  is  a  proper  compan- 
ion piece  to  llengstenberg's  Christology.  The  work  recon- 
structs the  entire  Old  Testament  account  historically  and 
exegetically  as  an  organic  whole.  Bertheaii  in  his  lengthy 
article  "  Die  alttestamentliche  Weissagung  von  Israel's 
Reichsherrlichkeit  in  seinem  Lande "  (Jahrbiicher  fiir 
deutsche  Theologie,  vol.  iv.,  Gotha,  1859)  endeavors  to 
separate  the  present  idea  of  the  fulfilment  from  the  par- 
ticular national  form,  llilgenfeld  (Die  Jiidische  Apo- 
J\alyptik  in  ihrer  geschichtlichen  Entwickelung,  1857) 
reviews  the  development  of  the  MessiaiTlc  idea  among  the 
Jewish  people.  Reinkes  *'  Messianische  Weissagungen  bei 
den  grossen  und  kleinen  Propheten  des  alten  Testaments" 
(Miinster,  1859)  is  a  classical  Catholic  treatise  on  the  sub- 
ject.   3Iei(/nan's  "Les  propheties  messianiques  de  rAiuien 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PROPHECY- ARGUMENT.  23 

Testament"  (Paris,  185C),  de  la  Luzerne's  "Dissertations 
sur  les  Propheties,"  de  Pompignan's  "rincredulite  con- 
vaincue  par  les  Propheties,"'  Jncqiielofs  "  Traite  de  la  vc'rite 
et  de  I'inspiration  de  I'iVncien  et  du  Noiiveau  Testament" 
deserve  careful  attention. 

r/.  Less  Conservativf^  Apologies. —  Tholuch  (d.  1877), 
in  his  "  Propheten  uiul  ihre  Weissagungen"  (Gotha,  18G0), 
and  Gnsfav  Baur  in  his  "  (}esehichte  der  alt  testament- 
lichen  Weissagung"  (Theil  1,  18G1),  follow  llengsteuberg, 
only  in  a  spirit  of  freer  criticism.  Older  (d.  1872)  in  his 
articles  "Messias"  and  "■Weissagung"  (Herzog's  K.  E.,  1st 
ed.,  vol.  ix.  Stuttgart,  1858;  vol.  xvii.  Gotha,  18G3),  and 
in  his  posthumous  "  Theology  of  the  Old  Testament"  (1st 
ed.,  Tubingen  1873-1874  ;  2d  ed.,  188-2-1885),  has  tried  a 
compromise  between  conservatism  and  headlong  ration- 
alism. DiesteVs  "  Geschichte  des  alten  Testaments  in  der 
christliclien  Kirche  "  (Jena,  1869),  Kilper's  "Das  Prophet- 
enthum  des  alten  Bundes  iibersichtlick  dargestellt" 
(Leipzig,  1870),  and  CastelWs  "111  Messia  secondo  gli 
Ebrei"  (Florence,  1784),  must  be  mentioned  at  this  period. 
Riehm  (d.  1888),  in  his  work  "  Die  Messianische  Weissa- 
gung" (Gotha,  1875;  English  translation  by  L.  A.  Muir- 
head,  Edinburgh,  1891),  inquires  into  the  origin,  the  his- 
torical character,  and  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy,  but  fails 
to  do  justice  to  the  literal  meaning  of  the  several  predic- 
tions. Drnmmond  (The  Jewish  Messiah,  1877)  is  still 
perhaps  the  main  English  authority  on  his  own  view  of 
this  subject;  Gloag  (The  Messianic  Prophecies,  Baird  Lec- 
ture for  1879),  deserves  a  careful  reading.  Eduard  Kunig's 
work,  "  Der  Offenbarungsbegriffi  des  alten  Testaments" 
(Leipzig,  1882),  defends  the  supernatural  character  of  the 
Old  Testament  prophecy.  We  must  not  omit  A.  Eders- 
heim's  reprint  of  his  Warbiirton  Lectures  for  the  years 
1880-1884,  which  he  collected  iu  a  volume  entitled 
"Prophecy  and  History  in  Relation  to  the  Messiah  "  (New 
York,  1885).  Here  is  the  place  to  mention  OreUi's  Old 
Testament  Prophecy  of  the  Consummation  of  God's  King- 


24  INTRODUCTION. 

(loin  (Clark's  translation),  Stanton's  "The  Jewish  and 
Christian  ^lessiah,  a  study  in  the  earliest  history  of  Chris- 
tianity," Scott's  "  Historical  Development  of  the  Messianic 
Idea"  (Old  Testament  Student,  1888,  176-180),  and  Ihin- 
hanVs  "  Der  Welterloser  im  alten  Testament"  (1888). 
Briyr/s  "  Messianic  Proi)hccy  "  aims  at  complete  exegeti- 
cal  treatment  of  Messianic  passages  (Edinburgh  and  New 
York,  188G).  C.  Elliott's  "  Old  Testament  Prophecy"  (New 
York,  1889)  professes  to  explain  the  nature  of  prophecy, 
its  organic  connection  w'ith  Old  Testament  histoi-y,  and 
its  New  Testament  fulfilment.  Dditzsch  published  his 
"  Messianische  Weissagungen  in  geschichtlicher  Folge"  at 
Leipzig  (Faber,  1890);  the  work  is  translated  into  English 
by  Prof.  Curtis  (New  York,  1891).  Baldcnsperyer's 
"  Selbstbewusstseiii  Jesu  im  Lichte  der  Messianischeii 
Iloffnungen  seiner  Zeit"  (Strassburg,  1888;  2d  ed.,  Strass- 
burg,  1892)  deserves  also  a  careful  study,  though,  like  most 
works  of  Protestant  authors,  it  is  tainted  with  several  ra- 
tionalistic ideas. 

d.  AVORKS  WHICH  DEAL  PaKTIALLY  AVITH   THE  PhOPHE- 

ciES. — AVc  might  extend  this  list  of  authors  indefinitely 
were  we  to  enumerate  all  the  works  which  deal  in  ])art 
with  our  subject,  or  with  some  aspect  of  it.  Still,  a  few 
must  be  noticed  here  on  account  of  their  importance  and 
tlie  frequent  use  we  shall  have  to  make  of  them.  Such  are: 
Diislerwald's  "  Die  Weltreiche  und  das  Gottesreich  nacli 
den  Weissagungen  des  Prophcten  Daniel"  (Freiburg,  1890) ; 
Edersheiin's  "  IMie  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah," 
book  ii.,  c.  v.  ;  Schiirer's  "  Geschichte  des  Ji'idischen  Volkes 
iin  Zeitalter  Jesu"  (Engl,  transl.  Edinburgh,  1890)  ;  and 
Keim's  "  Life  of  Jesus  of  Nazara"'  (Engl,  transl.  vol.  i.  pp. 
314-327  ;  vol.  iv.  pp.  25G-343  ;  vol.  vi.  pp.  384  to  end). 
Nearly  complete  bibliographical  lists  will  be  found  in  several 
of  tlie  works  already  referred  to. 
2.  Dialectic  Form  of  the  Prophecy  argument.— Thus 

far  we  \\\{\v  (•((nsidcicd  tlic  history  dl"  t  he  Christ  i an  ai'gunu'nt 
IVom   proithccy  ;  we  must  next  state  the  ai'gument  itself 


FORM  OF  THE  PROPHECY- ARGUMENT.  25 

in  its  strict  dialectic  form.  It  may  be  Avonled  as  follows: 
God  cannot  testify  to  what  is  false.  But  God  has  by  means 
of  the  Messianic  prophecies  testified  to  the  divinity  and  the 
divine  mission  of  Jesus.  Consequently  Jesus  had  a  divine 
mission  and  nature  (Diction,  de  la  theolog.  catli.  de  Wetzer 
et  Welte,  trad,  franc,  de  Goschler.  t.  xix.  pp.  201  ff.;  Perrone, 
Praelect.  theologicae,  ed.  Migne,  t.  i.  col.  74  f.). 

Without  insisting  for  the  present  on  the  further  conclu- 
sion that  the  Christian  religion  and  revelation  are  of  a 
divineorigin  and  necessarily  truthful,  we  turn  our  attention 
to  the  force  of  the  argument  itself.  If  the  premises  are 
correct,  the  conclusion  follows  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt. 
The  first  two  statements  then  deserve  a  more  minute  exami- 
nation. 

a.  Major  Premise. — In  the  first,  or  the  major,  premise  our 
attention  is  drawn  to  the  conditions  which  are  necessarily 
presupposed  in  the  prophecy  argument.  The  existence  of 
God,  his  essential  attributes,  and  the  first  principles  of 
morality  are  supposed  to  be  known  by  the  light  of  reason. 
A  inimber  of  recent  writers  have  stated  tliis  fact  very 
clearly  and  forcibly.  Mill  says  in  his  Logic  (ii.  p.  1G8): 
"  If  we  do  not  already  believe  in  supernatural  agencies,  no 
miracle  can  prove  to  us  their  existence.  The  miracle  itself, 
considered  merely  ns  an  extraordinary  fact,  may  be  satis- 
factorily certified  by  our  senses  or  by  testimony,  but  nothing 
can  ever  prove  that  it  is  a  miracle;  there  is  still  another 
possible  hypothesis — that  of  its  being  the  result  of  some 
unknown  natural  cause;  and  tiiis  possibility  cannot  be  so 
completely  shut  out  as  to  leave  no  alternative  but  that  of 
admitting  the  existence  and  intervention  of  a  being  sujierior 
to  nature."  Paley,  in  liis  Introduction  to  the  "  Evidences," 
uses  the  following  expression:  "The  effect  we  ascribe 
simply  to  the  volition  of  the  Deity,  of  whose  existence  and 
power,  not  to  say  of  whose  presence  and  agency,  we  have 
previous  and  independent  proof.  ...  In  a  word,  once  believe 
that  there  is  a  God,  and  miracles  are  not  incredible." 
Mozleij  again  and  again  repeats  this  same   truth   in  his 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

Lectures  on  Miracles:  "Unless  u  man  brings  the  belief  in 
God  to  a  Tniracle,"  lie  says  in  the  fifth  lecture,  "  he  does 
not  get  it  from  tiie  miracle."  Prof.  W.  Lee,  in  his  Essay 
on  Miracles,  substantially  agrees  with  the  above  authors: 
"The  Christian  argument  for  miracles  takes  for  granted 
two  elementary  truths — the  omnipotence  and  the  personality 
of  dod."  The  Rev.  /v.  Z}«iv'('.s,  inliis  "Signsof  the  Kingdom 
of  Heaven"  (p.  35)  maintains:  " The  miracle  of  miracles 
must  be  the  existence  of  a  living  God.  If  we  do  not  believe 
this,  it  is  impossible  that  any  smaller  miracles  should  prove 
it  to  us."  We  may  conclude  with  the  words  of  Weatcott, 
taken  from  his  Gospel  of  the  Resurrection  (p.  45):  ''For 
physical  students  as  such,  and  for  those  who  take  their 
impressions  of  the  universe  solely  from  them,  miracles  can 
have  no  real  existence." 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  all  through  that  we  do  not 
mean  to  say  that  God's  existence  might  not  be  proved  from 
a  miraculous  fact,  viewed  as  a  contingent  or  as  a  changeable 
being;  but  we  merely  contend  that  the  recognition  of  a 
mii'acle  as  such  presupposes  the  acknowledgment  of  a 
personal  God.  And  the  existence  of  God  once  granted,  it 
is  easily  shown  that  he  cannot  testify  to  a  falsehood. 

h.  Minor  Premise. — The  second  or  minor  premise  of  our 
prophecy-argument  calls  for  a  more  lengthy  explanation.  It 
nuiintains  that  God  by  means  of  the  Messianic  i)rophecies  has 
testified  to  the  divinity  and  the  divine  mission  of  Jesus. 
Three  distinct  statements  are  evidently  contained  in  this 
sentence:  (1)  There  have  been  real  Messianic  predictions; 
("2)  these  Messianic  predictions  are  true  prophecies;  (3) 
they  were  employed  by  God  in  confirmation  of  Jesus's 
divine  mission  and  nature. 

(X.  IIisToiiicAL  Truth  of  the  Pkophkcies. — The  main 
dinicultics  urged  against  the  existence  of  real  ^lessianic 
predictions  may  be  reduced  to  two  heads:  {a)  Christians 
may  have  retid  into  the  Old  Testament  predictions  which 
were  not  really  contained  in  it;  {b)  Christians  may  have 
inserted  into  the  life  of  Christ  fulfilments  which  have  no- 


FORM  OF  THE  PROPHECY- ARGUMENT.  27 

existence  in  history.  The  second  exception  is  equivalent 
to  a  denial  of  the  authenticity  and  truthfulness  of  the 
gospel  records,  facts  proved  in  the  introduction  to  the 
New  Testament   canon.      Additional  data   for  answering 

o 

the  diflficulty  will  be  found  among  the  apocalyptic  and  the 
Rabbinic  productions,  wliich  we  shall  have  to  refer  to  in 
answering  the  first  exception. 

1.  T]ie  Old  Testament  Books 2)recede  the  New  Testament. 
— Supposing  then  the  New  Testament  canon  established, 
and  therefore  the  facts  of  Christ's  life  proved,  we  must  show 
that  the  Old  Testament  prophecies  of  the  Messias  cannot 
be  Christian  fiction.  This  will  appear  in  the  first  place  all 
through  the  course  of  Messianic  prophecies,  since  they  will 
be  recognized  as  genuine  i)art  and  })arcel  of  the  several  Old 
Testament  books,  whose  canonicity  is  proved  beyond  all 
reasonable  doubt.  For  even  supposing  that  the  date  of  some 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament  is  much  more  recent  than  has 
been  believed,  a  supposition  which  we  make  only  for  argu- 
ment's sake,  it  is  still  certain  that  the  literature  in  question 
originated  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  so  that  our  statement 
regarding  the  existence  of  Messianic  predictions  remains  in 
force. 

2.  Sihylline  Oracles. — But  since  it  is  considered  incum- 
bent on  the  scientific  theologian  of  our  day  to  prove  his 
thesis  not  merely  from  scriptural  but  also  from  profane 
sources,  if  such  a  proof  is  jiossible,  we  too  sliall  indicate 
certain  early  books  and  writings,  though  partly  fragmen- 
tary, which  bear  evidence  to  the  existence  of  Messianic 
l^redictions  before  and  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Jesus. 
Here  belongs,  in  the  first  place,  the  greatest  part  of  the 
third  book  (v.  97-807)  of  the  Sibylline  oracles,  because 
after  Bleek's  time  most  critics  maintain  that  they  have 
been  written  by  a  Greek-Alexandrian  Jew,  and  constitute 
the  most  ancient  part  of  tlie  whole  collection.  Reuss 
(Herzog's  R.  E.  p.  184  ff.,  article  SihyUen)  and  Hilgenfeld 
contend  that  they  were  written  about  137,  and  others  place 
them  later  still.    But  for  our  pur2)ose  the  exact  year  of  their 


^3  INTRODUCTION. 

composition  is  a  matter  of  indi (Terence.  It  must  be  noted 
that  the  value  of  this  source  is  somewhat  lessened,  because 
it  is  not  universally  admitted  that  before  the  time  of  Christ 
the  Alexandrian  schools  exercised  a  great  influence  on  the 
Palestinian. 

3,  Book  of  Enoch. — Of  the  greatest  importance  in  the 
present  question  is  the  Book  of  P]noch.  It  i)urports  to  have 
been  written  by  the  patriarch  Enoch,  and  is  quoted  in  the 
Epistle  of  Jude  (14,  15).  Though  several  Eathers  use  it  as 
the  genuine  production  of  its  reputed  author,  and  as  con- 
taining authentic  divine  revelations,  it  has  never  been 
recognized  by  the  Ciiurch  as  canonical  (cf.  article  Enoch 
in  Smith's  Bible  Dictionary).  The  Byzantine  chronicler 
George  Syncellus  (about  800  a.d.)  still  quotes  two  long 
passages  from  the  book;  after  that  period  it  is  lost  sight  of, 
till  in  the  course  of  the  last  century  the  discovery  was  made 
that  an  Ethiopic  version  was  extant  in  the  Abyssinian 
Church.  In  the  year  1773,  Bruce,  the  Scottish  traveller, 
brought  three  manuscripts  of  it  to  Europe.  But  it  was  not 
till  the  year  1821  that  the  whole  work  was  given  to  the 
world  through  the  English  translation  of  Laurence.  A 
German  translation  was  made  by  Hofmann,  which  from 
chapter  i.  to  Iv.is  based  upon  the  English  version  of  Laurence 
(1833),  and  from  chapter  Ivi.  to  the  end  on  the  Ethiopic 
version  collated  with  a  new  manuscript  (1838).  The  Ethi- 
opic text  was  published  by  Laurence  in  1838,  and  subse- 
quently by  Dillmann  in  1851;  the  latter  has  been  collated 
with  five  manuscripts.  Dillmann  also  issued  a  new  German 
translation  in  1853  with  emendations  so  important  that  all 
disquisitions  connected  with  the  Book  of  Enoch  have  been 
based  on  it.  The  hope  that  new  light  would  be  thrown  on 
the  subject  by  a  small  Greek  fragment  (Ixxxix.  42-49) 
published  in  facsimile  by  C^ard.  Mai  from  a  Cod.  Vatic, 
(cod.  gr.  ISO!))  and  deciphered  by  Gildmeister, M'as  doomed 
to  disapi)()intment,  since  the  Codex  contained  nothing  more 
of  the  Book  of  Enoch.  Xew  Greek  Enoch  fragments  were 
discovered  in  the  winter  of  188G-87,  in  the  Christian  burial 


mRM  OF  THE  PROPIIECT-ARG UMENT.  29 

city  of  Akhmim,  in  Upper  Egypt.  They  were  published  in 
the  Menioires  publies  par  les  inembres  de  hi  mission  archeo- 
logique  fran^aise  au  Caire  sons  La  direction  de  M.  N. 
Bouriant  (tome  ix™*^  P""  fascicule;  Paris,  Ernest  Leroux, 
1892;  II.  147,  lexicon  size). 

a.  Division  of  the  Book  of  Enoch. — The  book  maybe 
divided  into  the  following  parts:  1.  Chapters  i.-v.  contain 
the  introduction  to  the  whole.  2.  Chapters  vi.-xi.  give  an 
account  of  tlie  fall  of  the  angels.  3.  Chapters  xii.-xvi. 
tell  how  Enoch  is  commissioned  to  announce  to  the  angels 
the  coming  judgment.  4.  Chapters  xvii.-xxxvi.  describe 
how  Enoch  is  carried  over  mountains,  seas,  and  rivers,  and 
how  ho  was  shown  the  mysteries  of  nature,  the  ends  of  the 
earth,  the  place  of  the  fallen  spii'its,  the  dwellings  of  the 
departed  souls,  both  just  and  unjust,  the  tree  of  life,  etc. 
5.  Chapters  xxxvii.-lxxi.  contain  three  allegories,  a.  The 
first  allegory,  embracing  chapters  xxxvii.-xliv.,  describes 
Enoch's  vision  of  the  abode  of  the  righteous  and  the  saints; 
Enoch  also  sees  the  myriads  of  spirits  standing  before  the 
throne  of  the  Most  High,  the  four  angels  Michael,  Raphael, 
Gabriel  and  Phanuel,  the  receptacles  wherein  the  sun,  the 
moon,  and  the  winds  are  kept,  the  lightning  and  the  stars 
of  heaven,  all  of  which  have  their  own  special  name.  h. 
In  the  second  allegory,  containing  chapters  xlv.-lvii.,  Enoch 
is  informed  regarding  the  "  Chosen  One,"  "  the  Son  of 
Man  " — i.e.,  the  Messias.  The  patriarch  learns  the  Messias' 
nature  and  mission,  and  how  he  is  to  judge  the  world  and 
establish  his  kingdom,  c.  The  third  allegory,  consisting  of 
chajiters  Iviii.-lxix.,  treats  of  the  blessedness  of  the  right- 
eous and  the  just,  of  the  mysteries  of  thuiider  and  light- 
ning, of  the  day  on  which  the  "  Chosen  One,"  "  the  Son 
of  Man,"  shall  judge  the  world,  d.  Chapters  Ixx.  aiul 
Ixxi.  contain  the  conclusion  of  the  three  allegories,  fi. 
Chapters  Ixxii.-lxxxii.  form  the  astronomie.d,  book,  giving 
us  all  the  astronomical  information  Enocli  had  ol^taiiuMl 
from  the  angel  Uriel.  7,  Chapters  Ixxxiii.-xc.  contain  two 
visions:  a.  Chai)terslxxxiii.  and  Ixxxiv.  descrilje  the  vision 


30  INTltODUUTION. 

of  the  flood,  where  Enoch  prays  God  not  to  destroy  the 
wliole  huniiin  ftimily.  h.  Chapters  Ixxxv.-xc.  narrate  the 
vision  of  the  cattle,  sheep,  wikl  beasts,  and  sheplierds,  sym- 
bolizing the  whole  history  of  Israel  down  to  the  Messianic 
times.  8.  In  chapter  xci.  Enoch  exhorts  his  children  to 
lead  a  pious  life.  9.  Chajiter  xcii.  forms  the  introduction 
to  the  next  section.  lU.  In  chai)ters  xciii.  and  xciv.  12-17 
Enoch  enlightens  us  concerning  the  world-weeks.  11. 
Chapters  xciv.-cv.  contain  woes  against  the  wicked  and  the 
ungodly,  and  hold  out  joyful  expectations  to  the  just.  12. 
Chapters  cvi.  and  cvii.  describe  the  birth  of  Noe  and  pre- 
dict the  flood.  13.  Chapter  cviii.  informs  us  regarding  the 
lire  of  lu'll,  to  which  the  souls  of  the  wicked  and  fhe  blas- 
pheming are  consigned. 

h.  Author  of  the  liaok  of  Enoch.- — A  few  words  must  be 
added  about  tin)  author  of  the  book  of  Enoch  and  the 
probable  time  of  its  composition.  1.  J.  C.  K.  von  Ilof- 
mann,  Weisse,  and  Philippi  contend,  chiefly  for  dogmatic 
reasons,  that  the  whole  book  is  of  Christian  origin.  There 
is  scarcely  any  recent  author  who  believes  the  work  to 
belong  to  one  author.  2.  Even  Dillmann,  whoin  his  trans- 
lation and  explanation  still  assumed  a  substantial  unity  of 
authorship,  has  now  abandoned  his  position,  in  spite  of 
Wittichen's  almost  entire  agreement  with  his  opinion.  3. 
In  the  case  of  the  allegories  especially,  it  is  now  almost 
universally  admitted  that  they  must  be  ascril)ed  to  an 
author  distinct  from  the  writer  of  the  other  jjortions 
(Krieger,  Liicke,  2d  ed.,  Ewald,  Dillmann  latterly,  Kostlin, 
Ililgenfeld,  Langen,  Sieffert,  Keuss,  Volkmar). 

c.  Time  of  Com })osition  of  the  Book  of  Enoch. — In  order 
to  determine  the  period  of  its  composition,  we  shall  divide 
the  book  into  the  sections  ascril)ed  to  the  same  authors: 

A.  The  original  writing  consists  of  chajiters  i.-x\xvi.  and 
Ixxii.-cv.,  abstracting  from  a  nunilx-r  of  more  or  less 
extensive  interj)olations.  Volkmar  ascribes  it  to  one  of 
Akiba's  dis('i])les  in  the  time  of  l^arcochelia.  But  most 
authnrs  agree  in  assigning  this  p<irlion   to  the  second  cen- 


FORM  OF  THE  PROPHECY- ARGUMENT.  31 

tury  B.C.,  either  to  the  earlier  years  of  the  Machabean  period 
(Krieger,  Liicke,  2d.  ed.,  Langen),  or  to  the  days  of  John 
Hyrcanus  (Ewald,  Dillmann,  Kostlin,  Sieffert,  Reuss,  Wit- 
ticheii),  or  even  to  the  days  of  Alexander  Jannasus  (Ilil- 
genfeld). 

B.  In  regard  to  the  most  important  section  containing 
the  allegories,  chapters  xxxvi.-lxxi.,  opinion  fluctuates 
most  of  all.  Here  Hilgenfeld,  Volkmar,  and  Colani  agree 
with  Ilofmann,  Weisse,  and  Philippi  in  ascril)ing  this  part 
to  a  Christian  author.  Hilgenfeld  even  believes  that  the 
writer  must  have  been  of  the  Gnostic  sect.  The  otlier 
critics  refer  the  same  portion  to  a  pre-Christian  period : 
Langen  to  the  earlier  days  of  tlie  IMaehabean  time;  Ewald 
to  about  144  r..c. ;  Kostlin,  Sieffert,  and  Dillmann  (Ilerzug's 
I{.  E.,  2d  cd.,  xii.  351  ft.)  to  some  date  previous  to  64  B.C.; 
Krieger  and  Liicke  to  the  early  part  of  Herod's  reign; 
Keuss  refrains  from  suggesting  any  date  at  all. 

But  the  main  question  is:  Are  the  allegories  of  pre- 
Christian  or  of  Christian  origin  ?  If  they  date  from  Chris- 
tian times,  the  author  must  be  a  Christian.  A  Jew  could 
not  have  written  the  allegories,  knowing  that  he  was  giving 
weapons  into  the  hands  of  the  Christians.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  Christian  writer  would  have  hardly  avoided 
so  carefully  all  allusion  to  the  history  of  Jesus.  Why 
should  a  Christian  speak  only  of  the  coming  of  the  Messias 
in  glory,  of  his  judging  the  world,  without  the  slightest 
indication  of  his  first  appearance  in  a  state  of  humiliation 
and  suffering  ?  Surely,  this  was  not  an  efficient  method 
of  gaininf  souls  over  to  the  religion  of  Christ.  The  argu- 
ment of  our  opponents,  based  upon  the  circumstance  that 
according  to  Matthew  xvi.  13-lG  and  John  xii.  34,  the 
expression  "  Son  of  Man "  was  not  a  common  Messianic 
title  at  the  time  of  Jesus,  whereas  it  is  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  this  sense  in  the  allegories,  is  without  force.  For 
we  are  by  no  means  at  liberty  to  infer  from  those  passages 
that  the  expression  "  Son  of  Man  "  was  not  at  that  time  a 
usual  Messianic  title.     In  the  case  of  John  (1.  c),  this 


32  INTRODUCTION. 

inference  is  based  simply  upon  fiilse  exegesis.  The  pas- 
sage in  Mattliew  is  much  weakened  by  the  circumstance 
that  in  another  form  })reserved  in  Mark  viii.  27,  wliich  is 
})arallel  to  Luke  ix.  \'6,  the  expression  "  Hon  of  Man  "  docs 
not  occur  at  all  (cf.  Edersheim,  "  The  Life  and  Times  of 
Jesus  the  Messiah,"  ii.  p.  SO,  5tli  ed.,  New  York). 

('.  The  Noachian  jjortions  of  the  book  of  Enoch  have 
been  sufficiently  proved  by  the  investigations  of  Dillmann, 
Ewald  and  Kostlin  to  be  identical  with  the  passages  liv.  7 — 
Iv.  2,  Ix.  G5 — Ixix.  25;  Ixviii.  l,and  probably  also  with  chap- 
ters cvi.,  cvii.,  and  cviii.  These  portions  are  called  Koa- 
chian,  partly  because  they  treat  of  Noe's  time,  and  partly 
because  they  purport  to  have  been  written  by  him.  It  is 
im})0ssible  to  determine  the  exact  date  at  Avhich  these  pas- 
sages were  composed.  Since  our  present  Ethiopic  version 
of  the  book  of  Enoch  has  been  made  from  the  Greek,  it 
may  be  asked  Avhether  it  was  originally  written  in  Greek, 
or  rather  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic.  Volkmar  and  Philippi 
contend  that  the  original  language  was  Greek,  while  all  the 
other  scholars  assume  the  Hebrew  or  the  Aramaic  as  the 
original  language.  (Cf.  Schiirer,  "  History  of  the  Jewish 
People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ,"  d.  ii.  v.  iii.  p.  54  ff.; 
Baldensperger,  Das  Selbstbewusstsein  Jesu  im  Lichte  der 
Messianischen  Hoifnungen  seiner  Zeit,  2d  ed.,  1892.) 

4.  The  Book  of  Jubilees.— 'Didiymw^  Alexandrinus, 
Epiphanius,  and  St.  Jerome  quote  an  apocryphal  book  under 
the  title  ra  'icoftffXauv,  or  i)  \enTi)  Feveai^,  from  which 
they  borrow  various  details  connected  with  the  history  of 
the  patriarchs.  Copious  extracts  from  the  same  work  are 
given  by  the  Byzantine  chroniclers  Syncellus,  Cedrenus, 
Zonoras,  Glycas,  from  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  down  to 
the  twelfth  century.  After  the  twelfth  century  the  book 
disappeared  from  notice,  and  it  was  considered  as  lost  till 
it  was  in  the  present  century  discovered  in  an  Ethiopic 
version  in  the  Aliyssinian  Church.  Dillmann  published  it 
for  the  first  time  in  a  Gennan  translation  (1850-1851).  and 
afterwards  in  its  Ethiopic  version  (1859).     Ceriani  found 


FORM  OF  THE  rROPHECY- ARGUMENT.  33 

iu  the  Ambrosiaii  Library  at  Milan  a  large  fragment  of  the 
work  in  an  old  Latin  version,  which  he  published  in  the 
"  Monunienta  sacra  et  profana"  (vol.  i.  fasc.  i.,  18G1).  Sub- 
sequently Ronsch  edited  the  same  fragment  accompanied 
by  Dillmann's  Latin  rendering  of  the  corresponding 
Ethiopic  portion  of  the  work,  by  a  commentary  and  several 
"  Excursus  "  full  of  most  valuable  material  (1874).  As  to 
the  date  of  the  work's  composition,  Dillmann,  Hilgenfeld, 
Langen,  Iloltzmann,  and  Schiirer  assign  it  to  the  first  cen- 
tury A.D.,  before  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
Noldeke  refers  the  work  to  the  last  century  before  Christ; 
Ronsch  to  the  sixth  decade  B.C.  It  is  not  so  much  the 
Messianic  erudition  contained  in  the  work  that  ijiterests 
us  as  its  direct  testimony  for  the  existence  of  the  book  of 
Enoch,  and  the  light  it  throws  on  the  pious  Jewish  view 
of  the  world  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  (Balden- 
sperger,  1.  c,  pp.  20  ft'.;  Schiirer,  1.  c,  pp.  134:  ff,), 

5.  llie  Psalms  of  Solotnon. — In  several  Christian  Old 
Testament  canons  the  Psalms  of  Solomon  are  included  at 
times  under  the  heading  "  Antilegomeua,"  and  again  under 
that  of  "  Apokrypha."  These  psalms,  amounting  to  eighteen 
in  number,  were  first  priiited  from  an  Augsburg  ]nanu- 
script  by  dela  Cerda  (1626),  and  subsequently  by  Fabricius 
(1713),  while  iu  our  own  time  Hilgenfeld  has  published  an 
edition,  collated  with  a  Vienna  manuscript,  and  this  has 
been  made  the  basis  of  the  editions  issued  by  Geiger, 
Fritzsche,  and  Pick.  The  principal  subject  of  the  psalms  is 
the  misery  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  its  desire  of  freedom 
and  redemption  through  the  mediation  of  the  Messias. 
It  is  only  by  later  transcribers  that  they  have  been  attrib- 
uted to  Solomon.  The  work  itself  betrays,  according  to 
the  critics,  very  distinct  traces  of  a  later  origin.  Ewald, 
Grimm,  Ohler,  Dillmann  (formerly),  Weiffenbach,  and  An- 
ger assign  the  psalms  to  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes; 
Movers,  Delitzsch,  and  Keim  prefer  the  time  of  Herod;  but 
Langen,  Hilgenfeld,  Geiger,  Carriere,  Wellhausen,  Reuss, 
Dillmann  (now),  Noldeke,  Hausrath,  Fritzsche,  and  Wit- 


34  INTliODUCriON. 

tichen  agree  with  most  others  that  the  origin  of  the  psahns 
must  be  phiced  after  Pompey's  conquest  of  Jerusalem,  about 
the  year  G3  B.C.  (cf.  Scliurer,  1.  c.  p]).  17  ft'.;  Comely,  In- 
troductio  in  U.  T.,  vol.  i.  p.  205;  Baldensperger,  1.  c.  pp. 
25  ft.). 

6.  Tlie  "  Ascensio  Mosis." — According  to  a  passage  in 
Origen  (De  princip.  iii.  2.  1)  the  fact  referred  to  in  the 
e])istle  of  Jude  (v.  9)  regarding  a  dispute  between  the  arch- 
angel Michael  and  Satan  about  the  body  of  Moses  has  been 
taken  from  an  apocryphal  book  entitled  the  "  Ascensio  Mo- 
sis."  Some  little  information  regarding  this  Ai'aXijnai?: 
Moovcrecos  has  also  been  gleaned  from  quotations  found  in 
the  Fathers  and  in  subsequent  writers.  But  a  large  portion 
of  the  work  in  an  old  Latin  version  was  only  recently  dis- 
covered by  Ceriani  in  the  Ambrosian  Ijibrary  at  Milan, 
where  it  had  been  concealed  for  ages,  and  ])ublished  by  the 
same  scholar  in  the  Monumenta  (18G1).  The  work  has 
since  then  been  edited  by  Hilgenfeld  (1866),  Volkmar  (in 
Latin  and  German,  1867),  Schmidt  and  Merx  (1868),  and 
Fritzsche  (1871).  The  critics  dilfer  considerably  about  the 
date  of  its  composition:  Ewald,  AVieseler,  Drummond,  and 
Dillmann  refer  it  to  the  first  decade  after  Herod's  death, 
Hilgenfeld  to  the  year  44-45  a.d.,  Schmidt  and  Merx  to 
the  time  between  54  and  64  a.d.,  Fritzsche  and  Lucius  to 
the  sixth  decade  of  the  first  century  a.d.,  Langen  to  the 
time  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  Hausrath 
to  the  reign  of  Domitian,  Philippi  to  the  second  century  of 
our  era,  Volkmar  to  the  year  137-138  a.d.,  while  Schiirer 
agrees  with  Ewald  and  those  Avho  adhere  to  his  opinion. 
The  peculiar  Messianic  ideas  of  the  "Ascensio"  will  ap])ear 
clearly  throughout  the  course  of  this  work  (cf.  Schurer, 
1.  c,  pp.  73  tr. ;  Comely,  1.  c,  p.  209;  BaldeJisperger,  1.  c, 
pp.  27  If.). 

7.  The  Revelation  of  Barnch. — The  larger  Peshito  man- 
uscript of  Milan  contains  also  a  revelation  of  Baruch,  re- 
garding which  there  exists  no  reliable  information.  A  snnill 
portion  of  it,  chajiters  Ixxviii.-lxxxvi.,  has  been  otherwise 


FORM  OF  THE  PliOrilECT-AIiO  UMENT.  35 

transmitted  to  us,  and  is  printed  in  the  Paris  and  the  London 
Polyglots.  Ceriani  first  published  a  Latin  version  of  the 
book  (18GG),  and  subsequently  published  the  Syriac  text, 
first  in  ordinary  type  (1871),  then  in  a  photolithographed 
facsimile  (1883).  Fritzsche  embodied  Ceriani's  Latin  ver- 
sion in  his  edition  of  the  Apocrypha,  introducing  how- 
ever a  few  emendations  (1871).  The  prediction  of  the 
Anointed  is  very  clear  and  precise.  As  to  the  date  of  the 
composition  of  the  book  it  seems  to  be  certain  that  it  was 
not  written  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus; 
but  it  is  impossible  to  determine  whether  it  was  written 
shortly  after  the  destruction  (llilgenfeld,  Fritzsche,  Drum- 
mond),  or  during  the  reign  of  Domitian  (Ewald),  or  in  the 
time  of  Trajan  (Langen,  Wieseler,  Renan,  Dillmann). 
Schiirer  thinks  it  most  probable  that  the  book  was  com- 
posed not  long  after  the  destruction  of  the  Holy  City,  when 
the  question.  How  could  God  permit  such  a  disaster?  was 
still  a  burning  one,  and  in  his  opinion  the  work  is,  at  any 
rate,  older  than  the  time  of  Papias  (cf.  Schiirer,  1.  c,  pp. 
83  ff. ;  Baldensperger,  1,  c,  pp.  37  ff.), 

8.  77ie  Fourth  Bonk  of  Esilras. — In  the  appendix  of  the 
Latin  Vulgate  we  find  among  other  apocryphal  works  the 
so-called  Fourth  Book  of  Esdras.  Several  Greek  and  Latin 
Fathers  regard  the  work  as  genuine  prophecy.  The  fact 
that  it  has  been  translated  into  Syriac,  Ethiopic,  Arabic, 
and  Armenian  proves  its  extensive  circulation  in  the  East. 
All  the  five  versions  which  we  now  possess  are  directly  or 
indirectly  taken  from  a  Greek  text,  now  no  longer  extant, 
but  which  must  be  regarded  as  the  original  text.  The  text 
of  the  Latin  Vulgate  consists  of  sixteen  chapters,  the  first 
and  the  last  two  of  which  do  not  appear  in  the  oriental 
versions,  and  are,  therefore  commonly  looked  upon  as  ad- 
ditions by  a  Christian  hand.  In  its  original  form,  then,  the 
book  consists  only  of  chapters  iii.-xiv.  The  coming  of  the 
Anointed  One  is  clearly  foretold  in  vii.  26-35.  Corrodi 
and  Ewald  refer  the  composition  of  the  book  to  the  time  of 
Titus;  Volkmar,  Langen,  Hausrath  and  Renan  to  the  time 


36  INTRODUCTION. 

of  Nerva;  Gfrorer,  DillmtunK  AVieseler,  I?enss, and  Schiirer 
to  the  reign  of  Domitian.  Kabi.seli  (Das  4te.  liuch  Esra, 
1889)  lias  of  late  made  an  earnest  attempt  to  divide  the 
book  according  to  its  various  sources,  one  of  whicli  he  refers 
to  100  A.I).,  the  other  to  30  B.C.  But  Baldensperger  justly 
rejects  Kabisch's  analysis  (lialdensperger,  1.  c,  p.  38; 
Schiirer,  1.  c,  pp.  1)3  fT. ;  Edersheim,  "Jesus  the  Messiah," 
vol.  ii.  pp.  655  ff.). 

9.  Talmudic  and  Jidbbinic  Sources. — A  word  must  be 
added  about  the  vast  source-material  aggregated  in  the 
Talmud  and  the  various  Midrashim.  Though  we  must  not 
overestimate  the  value  of  these  sources,  we  cannot  on  the 
other  hand  simply  ignore  them.  Too  many  efforts  have  of 
late  been  made  in  cultivating  this  field,  which  had  so  long 
remained  fallow,  to  admit  of  entire  silence  about  them. 
W el Ihau sen's  remark  that  the  Talmud  is  only  of  secondary 
importance  as  a  source  for  the  historical  condition  of  the 
pre-Talmudic  Jewish  people  is  no  doubt  correct;  but  far 
ditfercnt  is  the  judgment  that  must  be  pronounced  about 
the  ideas  contained  in  the  Talmud.  For  most  of  the  views 
expressed  by  the  Talmudic  writers  date  back  to  the  time  of 
Christ,  or  even  to  an  earlier  period.  If  we  then  apply  our- 
selves with  proi)er  care  to  these  writings,  we  shall  be  able  to 
gather  from  them  a  great  amount  of  reliable  material  (cf. 
Baldensperger,  1.  c,  pp.  43  If.;  Edersheim,  1.  c.  vol.  ii.  pp. 
659  ff. ;  Appendix  1  of  the  present  vol.). 

Review  of  the  Historical  Truth  of  the  Prophecies. — Thus 
far  we  have  given  the  sources  from  whicli  it  may  be  jiroved 
that  there  really  existed  Messianic  predictions.  Our  op- 
ponents were  those  who  contend  that  the  predictions  which 
we  now  consider  as  Messianic  i)rophecies  were  aj)])lied  to 
Jesus  in  a  false  and  artificial  sense,  without  really  referring 
to  him.  Thus  Christians  are  accused  of  manufacturing 
prophecies  by  reading  into  the  Old  Testament  meanings  that 
do  not  really  exist  in  it.  Greg  in  his  "  C^reed  of  Christen- 
dom" (3d  ed.,  p.  85)  expresses  the  difficulty  thus:  "The 
argument  would  have  the  force  which  is  attributed  to  it, 


FORM  OF  THE  niOPIlECY- ARGUMENT.  37 

were  the  objectors  able  to  lay  their  finger  on  a  single  Old 
Testament  prediction  clearly  referring  to  Jesus  Christ,  in- 
tended by  the  utterers  of  it  to  relate  to  him,  prefiguring 
his  character  and  career,  and  manifestly  fulfilled  in  his 
appearance  on  earth.  This  they  cannot  do."  Dr.  David- 
son pronounces  it  as  "  now  commonly  admitted  that  the 
essential  part  of  biblical  prophecy  does  not  lie  in  predict- 
ing contingent  events,  but  in  divining  the  essentially  re- 
ligious in  the  course  of  history.  ...  In  no  prophecy  can  it 
be  shown  that  the  literal  predicting  of  distant  historical 
events  is  contained.  .  .  .  In  conformity  with  the  analogy  of 
prophecy  generally,  special  predictions  concerning  Christ 
do  not  appear  in  the  Old  Testament  "  (cf.  Smith,  "  Diction- 
ary of  the  Bible,"  ii.  p.  932,  note  i.). 

/5.  Philosophical  Truth  of  the  Prophecies.— Prop- 
erly explained,  Greg's  and  Davidson's  observations  may  be 
understood  to  impugn  tho  second  statement  implied  in  the 
minor  premise  of  our  argument — i.e.,  the  contention  that  the 
Messianic  predictions  which  existed  before  the  time  of  Jesus 
are  real  prophecies.  It  is  true  that  in  order  to  have  a  real 
prophecy  certain  conditions  must  be  verified  regarding  both 
l)rediction  and  fulfilment.  The  prediction  must  precede 
the  event  in  time,  be  intelligible  and  definite  in  its  terms, 
and  foretell  something  which  at  the  time  of  its  utterance 
lay  beyond  the  ability  of  merely  human  sagacity  to  foresee. 
As  to  the  fulfilment,  it  must  be  a  historically  certain  event, 
undoubtedly  posterior  to  the  prediction,  and  accurately 
correspond  with  it  in  terms.  It  must  also  be  above  the 
suspicion  of  having  been  brought  about  by  human  means 
for  the  purpose  of  forming  an  apparent  accomplishment  of 
the  prediction.  These  are  the  essential  conditions  without 
the  verification  of  which  no  real  prophecy  exists.  They 
may  be  strengthened  by  the  following  accidental  notes: 
The  prediction  may  be  part  of  a  connected  system  of 
prophecies,  it  may  describe  the  special  coloring  and  the 
detailed  particulars  of  the  event,  and  it  may  finally  have  a 


38  INTRODUCTION. 

special    supernatural    purpose    reiulering   it   autecetlcutly 
probable  that  God  is  its  author. 

1.  Dejinitcness  of  the  Predictions. — The  priority  of  Mes- 
sianic prediction  to  fulfilment  has  been  established  in  the 
preceding  paragraphs.  As  to  the  definite  meaning  con- 
veyed by  the  Messianic  prophecies,  the  Old  Testament  leaves 
us  no  ground  to  call  it  in  question.  We  need  only  glance 
over  the  description  of  the  Messias,  his  nature,  properties, 
and  mission,  as  laid  down  in  the  writings  of  the  proi)hets, 
to  be  convinced  of  the  wrong  position  of  those  scholars  who 
refuse  to  admit  the  prophecy-argument  for  this  reason. 
Nor  can  it  be  said  that  the  fulfilment  of  the  Messianic  pre- 
dictions was  brought  about  by  human  means,  so  as  to  render 
the  existing  predictions  apparent  grounds  for  Jesus'  real 
Messiasship.  For  by  human  means  no  one  can  predeter- 
mine the  place  and  the  circumstances  of  his  birth,  by 
merely  human  means  no  one  works  miracles,  heals  the  sick, 
raises  the  dead,  and  feeds  thousands  of  peojile  with  five 
loaves  of  bread;  for  merely  natural  ends  no  one  gives  him- 
self up  to  be  scourged,  to  be  condemned  to  death,  and  to 
die  on  the  cross;  and,  finally,  by  no  human  means  can  any 
one  rise  from  the  dead  and  ascend  into  heaven. 

2.  Agrecinent  bcttceen  Prediction  and  Fultilment. — As 
to  the  exact  correspondence  of  fulfilment  and  predictions, 
we  must  content  ourselves  for  the  present  with  pointing  to 
the  treatise  on  the  particular  proi)hecies,  where  it  will  api)ear 
that  a  more  minute  and  accurate  description  of  certain 
portions  of  Christ's  life  could  have  hardly  been  given  by  aji 
eye-witness  (cf.  Rev.  B.  Maitland,  '*  The  Argument  from 
Prophecy,"  2d  ed.,  London,  lS8fi,  pp.  31  ff.).  And  tlie  suj)- 
position  tluit  all  these  particulars  should  have  been  fore- 
told by  merely  human  sagacity  is  so  improbable  that  it  has 
not  been  suggested  even  by  the  most  bitter  enemies  of  the 
Christian  revelation  (cf.  Kuenen's  view  as  exphiined  in 
The  Xew  Wortd,  March  1892,  p.  816;  see  pp.  A\\  IT.  of  tlie 
present  vol.). 

3.  21irce   Exceptions. — Waiving    for    the    ]»resent    the 


FORM  OF  THE  PROPHECY-ARGUMENT.  39 

other  exceptions  which  are  at  times  made  to  this  part  of 
the  argument  (St.  Thorn.,  Summ.  Theol.,  11.^'  ii.^^  q.  172; 
Libermann,  Theologia;  Nicohis,  Etudes  philos.  sur  le  Chris- 
tianisme;  Passaglia,  Conferences,  pp.  165  ff. ;  Brugere,  De 
vera  religione;  La  Luzerne,  Dissertation  sur  Ics  pro- 
pheties,  Paris,  1825,  t.  1),  we  must  consider  three  that  can 
hardly  be  answered  in  the  course  of  the  treatise.  Certain 
authors,  then,  impugn  the  principle  that  from  the  fact  of 
an  event  being  predicted  it  can  be  inferred  that  we  have  to 
deal  with  a  true  prophecy — or,  in  other  words,  that  God  has 
inspired  the  utterer  of  the  prediction  in  question.  There 
are  at  least  three  other  ways  in  which  such  a  fact  can  be 
explained.  First,  the  supposed  prophet  may  have  foretold 
the  future  by  mere  chance;  secondly,  the  prediction  may 
have  been  suggested  by  an  evil  spirit;  thirdly,  it  may  be 
a  merely  natural  phenomenon. 

a.  First  Exception. — The  first  explanation  is  rendered 
still  more  probable  by  our  experiencing  in  excitable  per- 
sons a  remarkable  spirit  of  mysterious  presentiment.  And 
if  external  circumstances,  be  they  motives  of  self-love  or  of 
patriotism,  inflame  in  such  a  person  an  ardent  desire  of  a 
certain  event,  what  wonder  that  he  utters  predictions  of 
what  he  most  ardently  wishes  for  ? 

Answer. — We  do  not  deny  the  possibility  of  any  one's 
foretelling  by  mere  chance  an  entirely  unexpected  event 
which  afterwards  really  comes  to  pass.  Nor  do  we  deny 
the  greater  probability  of  such  a  prediction  when  the 
event  is  ardently  desired.  But  if  the  predictions  include 
a  number  of  the  most  minute  particulars  that  are  not  at 
all  necessarily  connected  with  the  event,  the  probability  of 
a  prediction  by  mere  chance  becomes  very  small.  And 
again,  if  many  of  the  particulars  are  in  themselves  very 
unlikely  to  happen,  and  go  entirely  against  the  prophet's 
natural  desires,  a  mere  chance  prediction  of  such  an  event 
with  all  its  details  has  no  claim  to  any  probability  at  all. 
And  finally,  if  the  details  are  not  only  unwished  for,  but 
bring  misfortune  on  the  prophet's  family  and  nation,  make 


40  JNTROBUCriOK 

reprobates  of  ull  the  prophet's  friends  unci  aequaintuiices, 
if  the  details  regard  not  only  a  single  event  but  a  series  of 
events,  in  fact  a  man's  whole  lifetime,  and  the  failure  and 
success  of  his  life-work,  if  there  is  question  not  of  a  single 
prophet  but  of  a  series  of  different  i^'ophets  living  more  or 
less  at  random  at  the  various  epochs  of  a  whole  millon- 
nium,  and  still  ])redicting  the  incidents  of  a  man's  life  in 
such  a  way  that  all  the  prophecies  are  fully  consistent  with 
each  other  and  form  one  organic  whole, — supposing  all  this, 
the  explanation  by  mere  chance  is  not  only  intrinsically 
improbable,  but  implies  a  greater  miracle  than  is  needed 
in  the  explanation  by  inspiration.  We  may  as  well  say 
that  Apollo  of  Belvedere  has  been  constructed  out  of  the 
marble  chips  that  fell  from  the  works  of  the  different 
statuaries  who  lived  a  thousand  years  before  Apollo  was 
chiselled, and  that  by  mere  chance  all  the  single  chijis  fitted 
so  well  into  each  other  that  nothing  was  redundant,  noth- 
ing wanting,  as  maintain  that  the  Messianic  predictions 
are  the  outcome  of  mere  chance.  For  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that,  considered  from  a  merely  natural  staiul[)oint, 
the  prophets  represent  all  possible  conditions  of  life  and 
of  mental  culture.  A  mere  collusion  of  the  insjiired  Mes- 
sianic writers  is,  therefore,  simply  out  of  the  question  (cf. 
Rev.  B.  Maitland,  "The  Argument  from  Prophecy,"  tid  ed., 
London,  1818,  pp.  24  ff.). 

b.  Second  Exception  ansioered. — As  to  the  exception 
that  an  evil  spirit  may  have  been  the  inspiring  agent,  those 
who  take  uml)rage  in  this  expedient  can  no  longer  disbe- 
lieve in  God  and  revelation.  For  without  admitting  reve- 
lation we  have  no  right  to  explain  facts  by  other  facts 
which  suppose  revelation ,  or,  at  least,  the  knowledge  of 
whi(;h  cannot  be  obtained  without  revelation.  But,  as  we 
well  know,  the  existence  of  sjiiritual  beings  cannot  be  cer- 
tainly known  without  the  aid  of  revelation.  Again,  those 
who  really  believe  in  revelation  cannot  explain  the  Mes- 
sianio  predictions  as  the  mere  work  of  evil  spirits,  because 
in  this  way  they  destroy  their  first  and  oidy  reliable  crite- 


FOBM  OF  THE  PBOPHECY-AROUMENT.  4l 

rion  of  revelatio]],  tlie  objective  truth  of  miracles  and 
prophecies.  For  it  is  only  by  these  that  divine  revelation 
may  be  recognized  as  such.  And  these  being  rendered 
void,  no  one  has  a  right  to  suppose  the  existence  of  revela- 
tion, as  our  opi)onents  are  obliged  to  do  in  their  explana- 
tion of  the  Messianic  predictions.  Hence,  in  brief,  those 
who  have  recourse  to  the  inspiration  of  spirits  either 
admit  the  existence  of  revelation  or  they  do  not.  If  they 
do  not  admit  revelation,  they  do  not  know  the  existence  of 
spirits.  If  they  admit  revelation,  they  must  logically  admit 
that  by  which  alone  revelation  can  be  known — prophecy 
and  miracle.  The  case  of  these  adversaries  in  theology  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  sceptics  in  philosophy.  Their  posi- 
tion supposes  a  truth  which  they  either  openly  deny  or 
admit  without  proof. 

c.  Third  Exception.  M.  Nicolas. — The  third  class  of 
opponents,  explaining  the  prophetic  predictions  as  merely 
natural  jihenomena,  consists  mainly  of  rationalists.  This 
school  refuses  to  see  in  the  prophetic  phenomena  anything 
beyond  merely  natural  facts,  perfectly  analogous  to  those 
that  occur  in  pagan  history.  M.  Michel  Nicolas  (Etudes 
critiques  sur  la  Bible,  Ancien  Testament,  Paris,  18C2  ;  Du 
prophetism  hebreu,  p.  30G)  maintains:  "The  prophet  pre- 
sents himself  with  the  same  characteristics  and  under 
analogous  traits  amid  the  pagan  nations  and  in  the  midst 
of  the  Hebrews;  and  the  narratives  which  the  latter  have 
left  us  concerning  the  life  and  the  preaching  of  their 
prophets  offer  striking  resemblances  with  the  stories  of 
the  former  concerning  their  soothsayers."  Two  pages 
further  on,  the  same  author  continues:  "Among  the 
Hebrews  as  well  as  among  the  pagans,  prophecy  was  always 
accompanied  by  a  violent  excitement  of  the  imagination. 
Prophecy  is  inseparable  from  poetry  among  both  Hebrews 
and  Gentiles."  Still  a  few  pages  further  on,  we  read : 
"  The  art  of  medicine  and  the  art  of  soothsaying  were  in 
ancient  times  attributed  to  their  prophets  by  the  heathen 
nations  and  the  descendants  of  Israel  alike."     On  page  319 


42  INTRO  DUCT  I  ON. 

of  the  stuiie  Avork  proplietism  is  said  to  have  existed  among 
tlie  Hebrews,  especially  at  that  period  "  which  one  may 
call,  in  the  language  of  Vico,  the  heroic  age  of  the  honse 
of  Jacob.  Prophetisni  ceases  when  that  family,  carried 
along  by  the  general  destiny  of  the  nations,  after  its  re- 
turn from  the  Babylonian  captivity  enters  into  what  may 
be  called  its  human  age,  or  into  its  historic  period  ])roperly 
so  called."  Finally  (]).  321),  the  author  concludes:  "One 
is  reduced  to  a  general  historical  law;  the  peo])le  of  Israel 
is  no  exception  in  the  midst  of  the  other  nations,  and 
Hebrew  })ro]>hetism  enters  into  the  analogy  of  history." 

a.  J'Jivfihrs  View. — Ewald  believes  that  naturally  CUnl 
calls  every  one  to  know  him  and  to  share  his  divine  life, 
n  man  is  faithful  to  this  call,  he  rises  from  truth  to  truth, 
becomes  CJod's  friend,  and  partakes  of  his  divine  activity. 
Still,  this  divine  life  differs  in  different  men  and  accord- 
ing to  different  historical  periods,  liut,  in  any  case,  this 
life  is  nothing  but  our  natural  life  brought  to  its  perfec- 
tion. In  a  period  of  special  sjjiritual  excitement  and 
elevation  it  may  come  to  pass  that  a  thought,  conceived 
under  divine  influence,  takes  such  a  hold  of  man's  soul 
that  the  latter  takes  it  no  longer  for  its  own  thought,  but 
for  God's  inspiration.  And  since  man  thinks  not  only  of 
himself,  but  also  of  his  country  and  his  friends,  he  con- 
ceives also  projects  and  plans  of  benefiting  his  friends  and 
saving  his  country.  If  now  one  of  these  supposed  divine 
inspirations  enters  a  man's  soul,  he  cannot  rest  cpiiet  till  he 
has  ])roclaimed  his  idea  for  the  benefit  of  the  world.  Thus 
one  becomes  a  prophet.  The  prophet  sincerely  believes 
he  hears  the  powerful  voice  of  the  Most  High;  he  can 
hear  nothing  else,  is  unable  to  escape  the  appeal,  is  urged 
to  jiroclaim  his  insjiiration,  and  finds  no  rest  till  he  has 
fulfilled  his  supposed  niissioJi. 

/t  Jicnss'  Statemoit  of  the  Dijfiad/i/.  —  Renss  (Les 
Prophctes,  t,  i.  p.  25)  agrees  with  Ewald  in  reducing  the 
gift  of  |)roj)hecy  to  the  subjective  belief  in  the  presence  of 
a  divine   voice  which  has    no    objective   reality.     It  is  of 


FORM  OF  THE  PROPHECY- ARGUMENT.  43 

little  practical  import  in  the  present  question  whether, 
according  to  this  last  opinion,  Hebrew  prophecy  must  be 
identified  with  pagan  soothsaying,  or  whether  it  is  one 
with  the  national  and  tribal  presentiment  of  Israel.  Both 
theories  have  their  adherents. 

y.  M.  Reville's  Addition. — M.  Reville's  theory  too  ex- 
plains prophecy  as  "  a  phenomenon  of  the  life  of  senti- 
ment." "To-day's  psychological  medicine,"  says  the 
learned  author  {Revue  des  deux  Mondes,  15  juin  1867, 
pp.  823,  824),  "  seriously  studies  the  numerous  facts  which 
prove  that  nervous  superexcitement,  which  may  be  caused 
in  various  ways,  is  often  accompanied  by  a  remarkable  dis- 
play of  feeling,  of  memory,  of  clear  ideas,  and  especially 
of  foresight.  This  foresight  is,  of  course,  far  from  being 
infallible  ;  but  it  would  be  wrong  to  deny  the  surprising 
rapidity  and  the  automatic  certainty  of  the  unconscious 
mental  operations  at  these  moments  of  mental  excitement." 

6.  liuenen's  Theor>/. — We  must  not  close  the  state- 
ment of  our  opponents'  theories  without  giving  a  clear  view 
of  Dr.  A.  Kuenen's  position  regarding  our  present  subject. 
For  the  books  "  The  Religion  of  Israel  to  the  Fall  of  the 
Jewish  State"  (Dutch  ed.  1869-70;  English  transl.  1874-75) 
and  "Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel"  (Dutch  ed.  1875; 
English  transl.  1877)  of  the  renowned  Leyden  professor 
are  constantly  quoted  in  our  days  by  both  European  and 
American  scholars.  The  former  of  these  is  mainly  directed 
against  the  view  which  regards  the  Old  Testament  chiefly 
as  the  fore-court  of  the  temple  of  Christianity,  as  a  shadow 
of  the  Christian  truth,  as  a  collection  of  texts  to  be  inter- 
preted not  simply  by  the  New  Testament,  but  also  by  the 
later  developments  of  the  Christian  dogma  {The  New 
World,  March,  1892,  p.  77).  Kuenen  expresses  his  opinion 
thus  (Religion  of  Israel,  vol.  i,  pp.  10  f.):  "It  is  only  by 
comparison  that  we  can  determine  whether  many  persons 
are  right  in  assuming  a  specific  difference  between  Israel's 
religion  and  its  sisters.  Without  the  shadow  of  doubt, 
then,  we  deny  the  existence  of  such  a  difference.  .  .  .  The 


44  INTItODUCTION. 

belief  in  the  exceptional  origin  of  the  religion  of  the 
Israelites  is  founded  simply  and  solely  on  the  testimony 
of  their  holy  records.  But  that  appearance  vanishes  as  soon 
as  Ave  look  at  it  more  closely.  .  .  .  Although  considered 
as  a  whole  the  Old  Testament  may  -with  justice  be  ad- 
duced as  testifying  in  favor  of  suiiernaturalism,  its  sepa- 
rate parts,  regarded  by  the  light  of  criticism,  speak  loudly 
for  a  natural  development  both  of  the  Israelitish  religion 
itself  and  of  the  belief  in  its  heavenly  origin.  As  soon  as 
the  dispute  between  the  whole  and  its  parts  is  noticed, 
it  is  decided."  Prophetism  is  accordingly  a  merely  human 
phenomenon,  coming  from  God  as  everything  comes  from 
God.  But,  notwithstanding  this,  it  comes  also  from  man, 
and  specifically  it  comes  from  Israel,  of  whose  spirit  it  is 
the  most  exalted  expression.  It  testifies  only  to  the  special 
destiny  of  Israel  and  to  the  duty  of  man  to  seek  God  and 
perhaps  to  find  him. 

e.  Knenen's  View  further  Developed. — Kuenen's  other 
book,  "  Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel,"  deals  more 
directly  with  our  subject,  and  was  written  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Dr.  John  Muir,  of  Edinburgh,  on  the  occasion  of 
A.  Reville's  articles  in  the  Revue  dcs  deux  Mondes.  Its 
object  is  to  determine  the  function  of  the  2>rophetic 
thought  in  the  religious  development  of  Israel  and  of 
mankind.  The  book  has  a  polemical  and  ruthless  tone. 
Kuenen  takes  the  prophetic  predictions  one  by  one,  and 
undertakes  to  show  that  most  of  them  were  not  fulfilled, 
and  that  those  which  were  fulfilled  do  uot  demand  any 
supposition  of  supenuiturul  insight  to  account  for  them. 
He  treats  the  projjhets  as  living  men  enveloped  in  the 
atmosphere  of  their  own  times,  acting  on  the  instincts  of 
tlieir  own  soul**,  and  he  fiiuls  no  need  of  the  sujiernatural 
in  order  to  explain  their  work.  1'he  professor  places  the 
value  of  Hebrew  jirophecy  not  in  its  predictive  element, 
but  in  its  creating  the  conception  of  ethical  nionotheism. 
And  in  order  to  sliicld  himself  against  the  l)lamf  of  ir- 
nivercncc  tdwai'ds   tlicliiu>  of  proplicts,  Kiiciicii   s:iys  tli;it 


FORM  OF  THE  PROPHECY- ARGUMENT.  45 

the  man  into  whose  mind  thoughts  are  mechanically 
poured  hy  God  is  no  more  to  be  considered  great  than  the 
warrior  who  slays  his  enemy  with  an  enchanted  sword. 
According  to  him  the  prophets  must  cease  to  be  machines, 
and  become  thinkers,  wielding  an  enormous  moral  jiower 
{TliQ  Neio  World,  March,  1892,  p.  81). 

C.  Kuenen's  Method  Illustrated. — We  may  add  a  speci- 
men of  Kuenen's  reasoning:  "A  specific  supernatural 
character  can  in  nowise  be  ascribed  to  the  trance;  its 
divine  origin  is  not  at  all  self-evident  ;  phenomena  of  tbat 
nature  were  far  from  uncommon  in  ancient  times  and 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  as  they  occur  even  at  the  present  day. 
It  is  true  that  for  a  long  time  people  had  no  hesitation  in 
ascribing  them  to  suiiernatural  influence.  They  seemed 
so  singular  and  extraordinary  that  this  explanation  forced 
itself  quite  naturally  on  men's  minds.  What  could  not 
be  derived  from  God  was  therefore  regarded  as  a  display  of 
the  power  of  the  devil.  ]3ut  we  now  no  longer  occupy  tliat 
standpoint.  Ecstasy  is  now  accurately  studied,  compared 
with  other  affections  allied  to  it,  and  is  explained  from 
the  human  organism  itself,  specifically  from  the  nervous 
system.  It  may  be— on  that  point  I  determine  nothing  at 
present — that  the  trances  of  the  Israelitish  prophets  were 
of  a  nature  altogether  different;  but  that  must  be  proved 
separately,  for  ecstasy  in  itself  is  no  supernatural  phenome- 
non. It  does  not  therefore  advance  us  a  step  in  deter- 
mining the  origin  of  the  Old  Testament  prophecy" 
(Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel,  p.  86,  London,  1871; 
cf.  Ladd,  Doctrine  of  Sacred  Scripture,  ii.  pp.  440  f.,  1883). 

Ansiver :  1.  TJte  Naturally  Ecstatic  State. — First  a 
word  concerning  the  ecstatic  state,  the  natural  character  of 
which  both  Reville  and  Kucnen  are  so  careful  to  notice. 
In  a  rude  and  uncultivated  age  epileptic  and  deranged 
persons  may  have  been  regarded  as  possessed  by  evil 
spirits  or  the  divine  spirit,  as  tlie  nature  of  the  case  seemed 
to  indicate.  Such  persons,  too,  may  have  had  strange  ex- 
periences and  uttered    niarvcllous  sayings,  supposed  to  be 


46  INTRODUCTION. 

inspired  by  an  indwelling  spirit.  Moreover,  the  ecstatic 
state  may  have  been  produced  by  artificial  means.  The 
jiroplicts  of  Haal,  e.g.,  are  said  to  have  cut  themselves  with 
knives  and  to  have  cried  out  for  hours  in  a  frenzy  (III. 
Kings  xviii.  ^9);  the  Jiecromancers  are  represented  as 
chirping  and  muttering  in  the  practice  of  their  art  (Is. 
viii.  19);  the  Shamans  of  eastern  Asia  cast  themselves  into 
an  nnconscious  state  by  means  of  a  tambourine  and  of 
stimulants,  and  though  their  answers  in  that  state  are 
often  surprisingly  accurate,  they  know  nothing  of  what 
has  transpired  when  they  return  to  consciousness  (Tho- 
luck,  "  Die  Propheten,"  pp.  8  f.) ;  how  the  Delphian  proph- 
etesses were  cast  into  the  prophetic  state  by  the  foul  gases 
arising  from  the  clefts  in,the  rocks  is  well  known  (Tholuck, 
1.  c,  pp.  0  f. ;  cf.  Maudsley,  "Natural  Causes  and  Super- 
natural Sccmings,''  London,  ISSO,  pp.  17G  f.);  the  whirling 
and  the  howling  of  the  Mahometan  dervishes  are  practised 
even  in  our  days;  the  Indian  Fakirs  cut  themselves  with 
knives,  as  did  the  jjropliets  of  Baal;  besides  all  this  we 
have  the  kindred  phenomena  of  second  sight,  of  uncon- 
scious somnambulism  and  of  hypnotism. 

2,  This  is  noichere  said  to  belong  especiallij  to  the 
Hebrews. — In  these  so-called  ecstatic  conditions  involving 
unconsciousness  to  the  external  world,  the  inner  emotional 
and  intellectual  faculties  may  move  with  greater  rapidity 
and  freedom,  and  may  reach  the  solutions  of  difficult  prob- 
lems and  discern  the  issues  of  events  far  and  near.  Per- 
haps there  is  even  added  an  instinctive  prediction  and  an 
instinctive  guidance  through  difficulties  ;  but  there  may  be 
also  an  entire  absence  of  the  latter.  Nor  do  we  deny  that 
such  phenomena  existed  among  the  Hebrews  in  apparently 
a  similar  way  as  they  existed  anu)ng  other  nations  of 
anti(|uity.  Thus  we  read  of  a  l)and  of  projdiets  coming 
down  from  the  high  jdace  with  i)saltery  and  timbrel  and 
l)il)('  and  harp,  and  they  were  prophesying;  and  when 
Saul  met  them,  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  came  upon  him  loo 
and    be    proidiesicd    witb    tlicin    (I.    Kings    x.  .")    f.);  and 


FORM  OF  THE  PROPHECY- ARG  UMENT.  47 

again,  when  Saul  went  out  to  seek  David  the  divine  spirit 
came  upon  him,  and  he  went  on  and  prophesied  until  he 
came  to  Najoth  in  Ramatha.  And  stripping  off  his  clothes, 
he  fell  down  naked  all  that  day  and  all  that  night,  and  he 
prophesied  before  Samuel,  so  that  they  said :  Is  Saul  also 
among  the  prophets  ?  (I.  Kings  xix.  23  f.)  But  if  this 
state  is  alluded  to  in  the  Bible,  it  is  certainly  not  repre- 
sented as  being  peculiar  to  the  Hebrews  and  to  their  re- 
ligion (cf.  Briggs,  "  Messianic  Prophecy,"  New  York,  188G, 
pp.  7  ff.). 

3.  Fallacij  of  Kuenen^fi  Induction. — We  furthermore 
agree  entirely  with  Dr.  Maudsley  (Natural  Causes  and 
Supernatural  Seemings,  London,  1886,  pp.  3G1,  3G2) :  "If 
all  visions,  intuitions,  and  other  modes  of  communication 
with  the  supernatural,  accredited  now  or  at  any  time,  have 
been  no  more  than  phenomena  of  psychology, — instances, 
that  is,  of  subnormal,  supernormal,  or  abnormal  mental 
function, — and  if  all  existing  supernatural  beliefs  are  sur- 
vivals of  a  state  of  thought  befitting  lower  stages  of  human 
development,  the  continuance  of  such  beliefs  cannot  be 
helpful;  it  must  be  hurtful  to  human  progress."  But  it 
would  surely  show  a  most  unscientific  bent  of  mind  were 
we  to  conclude  from  the  spuriousness  of  some  supposed 
prophetic  ecstasies  that  all  others,  even  those  contained  in 
the  Bible,  must  be  rejected  as  spurious  (cf.  Briggs,  1.  c, 
p.  5).  Hence  it  appears  that  Kuenen's  argument,  taken  at 
its  greatest  value,  is  not  logically  conclusive. 

4.  TliG  so-called  Natural  Facts  have  not  yet  lieen  ex- 
plained.— Then  we  must  keep  in  mind  M.  Le  Ilir's 
remarks  on  the  present  question  (Les  Prophetes  d'lsrael, 
in  Etudes  Bibliques,  Paris,  18G9,  t.  i.  p.  G) :  "Our  psy- 
chologic medicine  may  be  able  to  observe  the  phenomena 
of  foresight  and  second  sight,  but  has  it  explained  them  ? 
Has  it  assigned  their  causes  ?  Not  every  nervous  excite- 
ment produces  them.  And  who  has  proved  that  in  no  case 
a  supernatural  agent  is  active?  Our  ancestors  believed 
this.     Are  we  wiser  than  they,  when  without  any  scientific 


48  INTltODUCriON. 

proof  we  attribute  tlieir  belief  on  tliis  point  to  universal 
ignorance?  Ignorance  will  always  produce  fools.  There 
are  always  charlatans,  and  always  enthusiasts,  victims  of 
their  own  illusions.  Hut  when  they  undertake  to  prophesy, 
the  future  will  show  the  folly  of  their  oracles,  and  thus  dis- 
pel the  charm  with  which  they  had  fascinated  the  simple." 
5.  Ecstasy  is  not  the  Criterioii  of  Prophecy. — Besides 
all  this,  our  prophetic  argument  is  not  in  the  least  affected 
by  all  that  Kc'ville  and  Kuenen  have  said  about  the  ecstatic 
state.  Were  our  criterion  of  true  prophecy  the  ecstasy  of 
its  utterer  at  the  time  when  the  prediction  is  first  made, 
our  opponents  might,  at  least,  have  thrown  some  doubt  on 
the  argument  based  on  such  utterances,  lint  ecstasy  is  not 
at  all  necessarily  connected  with  prophecy;  many  ])rophe- 
cies  have  been  uttered  outside  of  the  ecstatic  state,  as  there 
have  been  many  cases  of  ecstasy  not  producing  any 
prophecy.  It  is  not  so  easy  as  all  this  to  be  a  pro])het. 
Since  the  future  does  uot  yet  exist  for  man,  he  cannot 
know  it  naturally  except  in  its  causes.  If  the  latter  exist 
already  even  in  a  latent  state,  if  there  is  question  of  certain 
physical  effects  depending  on  them,  a  perfectly  developed 
nervous  sensibility  may  ])erceive  them  beforehand,  as  it 
hajipens  in  the  case  of  rheumatic  jiersons  or  of  the  tree- 
frog.  But  when  there  is  question  of  a  far-off  future  event, 
depending  on  the  changeable  wills  of  innumerable  agents 
who  are  influenced  by  a  diversity  of  interests,  it  appears 
clearer  than  daylight  that  no  amount  of  emotion  can  fore- 
see it  naturally.  Had  our  opponents  appealed  to  the  power 
of  profound  calculations  and  to  the  calculus  of  probabili- 
ties, they  might  have  laid  claim  to  a  scientific  basis  of  pro- 
ceeding; but  they  well  know  that  even  scientific  men 
would  have  smiled  at  their  unsatisfactory  explanation  of 
certain  historic  facts.  Our  criterion  of  jirophecy  is  there- 
fore neither  the  emotion  nor  the  mathematic  ability  of  the 
prophet,  but  the  exact  correspondence  of  the  jiredicted  event 
with  the  terms  of  the  predictions,  the  proper  conditions 
regarding  both  prediction  anti  fulfilment  being  verified. 


FORM  OF  THE  PROPHECY-ARGUMENT.  49 

6.  Even  one  Prophecy,  estahlished  with  Certainty,  is 
God's  Testimony. — But  has  not  Kuenen  proved  the  futility 
of  the  prophecy-argument,  even  on  the  supposition  of  tliis 
criterion  of  prophecy  being  admitted  ?  Has  he  not,  in 
other  words,  shown  that  most  of  the  supposed  Old  Testa- 
ment jiredictions  have  not  been  fulfilled  ?  Let  us  suppose, 
for  a  moment,  that  Kuenen  has  really  proved  what  he 
claims  to  have  proved:  even  on  this  supposition  our 
prophecy-argument  is  still  valid  on  Kuenen's  own  admis- 
sion. For  he  freely  admits  that  some  predictions  have  been 
really  verified,  though  he  maintains  that  in  these  instances 
the  event  predicted  could  have  been  foreseen  naturally. 
In  the  light  of  science,  i.e.,  of  the  calculus  of  probabilities, 
the  last  contention  cannot  be  defended.  And  as  long  as 
we  have  even  one  real  prophecy  testifying  for  the  divine 
nature  and  mission  of  Jesus,  our  conclusion  is  logically 
correct.  For  one  prophecy  is  as  much  the  work  of  God, 
supposes  as  much  God'sinspiration  and  expresses  as  much 
God's  approval,  as  does  the  whole  series  of  Messianic  pre- 
dictions. It  matters  little  whether  a  person  has  signed  a 
legal  document  only  once,  or  has  repeated  his  seal  a  hun- 
dred times;  so  it  is  of  little  import  whether  God's  testi- 
mony in  favor  of  Jesus'  divine  natui'e  and  mission  is  given 
once,  or  a  hundred  times,  it  is  infallible  in  any  case.  All 
that  is  added  to  our  argument  by  the  multiplicity  of  the 
Messianic  predictions  is  the  greater  certainty  thereby  se- 
cured that  we  have  real  prophecies  and  not  merely  casual 
predictions;  that,  in  other  words,  God  himself  has  inspired 
the  utterers  of  the  predictions.  Even  as  in  a  single  extra- 
ordinary event  it  would  be  hard  to  determine  its  strictly 
miraculous  character,  so  in  the  case  of  a  single  prediction 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  it  is  to  be  attributed  to 
mere  chance  or  to  divine  illumination. 

7.  Falsely  Alleged  Unfulfilled  Prophecies. — But  apart 
from  all  this,  Kuenen  has  not  proved  that  most  of  tlie  Old 
Testament  predictions  have  not  been  verified.  We  need 
only  consider  some  few  of    the    instances  in  which   the 


50  mriwDUCTioN. 

prophecies  are  said  to  liave  failed,  in  order  to  judge  of  our 
opponent's  ])osition.  In  regard  to  the  projihecies  against 
Tyre  (Is.  xxiii.  and  Ezech.  xxvi.)  which  are  alleged  to  liave 
remained  unfulfilled,  the  difficulty  arises  from  not  distin- 
guishing between  Old  Tyre  and  New  Tyre.  Nabucho- 
donosor  took  Old  Tyre  on  the  continent;  but  New  Tyre,  on 
the  island,  submitted  to  the  Chalda?ans  by  capitulation. 
Tyre  regained  her  independence  after  the  fall  of  Babylon, 
and  became  rich  and  })rosperous  (cf.  Elliott,  "  Old  Testa- 
ment Prophecy,"  New  York,  1889,  p.  52).  Amos  is  said  to 
have  prophesied  the  murder  of  Jeroboam  II.,  simply  because 
his  bitter  opponent,  the  priest  of  Bethel,  thus  reported  the 
prophet's  words;  Amos  did  not  speak  of  the  king  in  person, 
but  of  his  house  and  dynasty  (cf.  Amos  vii.  11  and  v.  9). 
Osee  is  said  to  have  })rodicted  an  Egyptian  captivity  for 
the  ten  trib(^s,  while  it  is  plain  from  the  political  circum- 
stances under  which  the  prophet  wrote  that  he  jjredicted 
only  a  flight  into  Egy})t,  but  a  captivity  in  Assyria  (cf. 
Osee  viii.  13;  ix.  3,  6;  xi.  5,  11).  Other  prophecies  were 
uttered  only  conditionally,  as  was  the  case  in  the  predic- 
tion of  Jonas  and  in  that  of  Micheas  regarding  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  by  the  Assyrians  (cf.  Mich.  iii.  13). 

8.  PliiJisfiaH  Destraction. — But  we  must  not  omit  ex- 
amples of  Kuenen's  investigation  both  of  the  prophecies 
regarding  pagan  nations  and  of  the  predictions  regarding 
the  chosen  peojde  of  Israel.  A  good  instance  of  the 
former  class  is  the  almost  unanimous  prediction  of  the 
prophets  that  the  cities  of  Philistia  Avcre  to  be  destroyed 
(cf.  Amos  i.  C-8;  Joel  iii.  4-8;  Ezech.  xxv.  15-17;  Zach. 
ix.  4-7;  Soph.  ii.  4-7;  Jer.  xlvii.;  Is.  xiv.  39-32;  xi.  14). 
It  must  l)e  observed  that  Kuenen  insists  on  two  additional 
points:  First,  he  maintains  that  according  to  these  prophe- 
cies Philistia's  destruction  was  to  liappcn  shortly  after  the 
time  of  the  ])redictions;  secondly,  that  the  jirophets  had 
expressly  indicated  the  medium  through  which  Philistia 
was  to  sutler. 

Kuenen  himself  is  I'aii'  cuouyh  to  admit  that  the  medium 


FORM  OF  THE  PROPIIECY-ARO  UMENT.  51 

of  Pliilistia's  chastisement  is  not  indicated  by  the  prophets 
Amos,  Joel,  Ezechiel,  Zachavias,  and  Sophonias.  He  ap- 
peals, however,  to  Is.  v.  30  and  to  Jer.  xlvii.  1.  The  most 
probable  reading  of  the  former  passage  is  the  following: 
"And  if  one  look  unto  the  land,  behold  darkness  and 
distress,  and  the  light  is  darkened  in  the  clouds  thereof." 
Having  overcome  Achaz,  the  Philistines  imagined  that 
they  had  no  more  to  fear  from  Juda.  Then  it  was  that 
Isaias  spoke  to  them  (Is.  xiv.  29) :  "  Eejoice  not,  0  Philis- 
tia,  all  of  thee,  because  the  rod  that  smote  thee  is  broken ; 
for  out  of  the  serpent's  root  shall  come  forth  a  basilisk,  and 
his  fruit  shall  be  a  fiery  flying  serpent."  It  is,  therefore, 
Achaz's  successor,  Ezechias,  who  is  pointed  out  by  Isaias 
as  Pliilistia's  scourge,  and  it  is  at  his  approach  from  the 
north  that  "the  smoke  of  the  north"  will  be  perceived  in 
the  cloud  of  dust  raised  by  his  military  lines.  The  text  of 
Jeremias  (xlvii.  2)  speaks  only  of  waters  "that  rise  up  out 
of  the  north "  against  the  city  of  Gaza,  and  to  identify 
these  waters  with  the  Chalda?ans  is  an  arbitrary  exegesis. 
Hence,  neither  Isaias  nor  Jeremias  pointed  to  the  Chal- 
dseans  as  the  scourge  of  the  Philistine  cities. 

9.  No  Time  determined  i7i  the  Predictions. — As  to  the 
contention  of  Kueneu  that  these  prophecies  were  to  be 
accomplished  shortly  after  they  had  been  uttered,  there 
certainly  exists  no  general  rule  to  this  effect  regarding  the 
fulfilment  of  prophecy.  Kousseau's  contention,  that  we 
ourselves  must  witness  prediction  and  fulfilment,  is  alto- 
gether gratuitous.  Hence,  if  Kueneu  wishes  that  his 
position  should  have  any  scientific  value,  he  must  prove  it 
in  regard  to  this  special  class  of  predictions.  In  point  of 
fact,  the  contemporaries  of  the  prophets  who  uttered  the 
predictions  in  question  did  not  witness  their  fulfilment. 
Sophonias  clearly  declares  that  Juda  will  not  possess 
Philistia  till  after  its  return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity. 
Keil,  commenting  on  Sophonias  ii.  4,  is  of  opinion  that  this 
particular  prediction  has  not  yet  found  its  fulfilment. 
According  to  this  view  the  material  return  of  Israel  from 


52  INTliODUCriON. 

Babylon  was  only  a  figure  of  the  final  return  of  Israel  to 
its  God  by  its  conversion  to  Christ,  and  after  this  return 
will  Israel  possess  the  land  of  Philistia.  AVithout  denying 
the  probability  of  this  ex2)lanation,  we  must  take  notice 
that  Isaias'  prediction  was  sufficiently  accomplished  by 
Ezechias,  who  gained  such  remarkable  advantages  over 
the  riiilistiues  that  he  devastated  their  territory  and  pur- 
sued them  even  to  the  gates  of  Gaza.  Not  to  mention  the 
Philistine  sufferings  during  the  Egypto-Chaldeean  wars, 
there  is  the  most  remarkable  fact  that  shortly  after  the 
time  at  which  Zacharias  predicts  the  approaching  destruc- 
tion of  Gaza  and  Ascalon,  Philistia  disappears  from  the 
field  of  history. 

10.  Prophecies  Concerning  Israel. — Next  a  specimen  of 
Kuenen's  reasoning  concerning  the  pro])hecies  about  the  • 
future  of  Israel.  Not  one  of  them,  he  says,  has  been  ful- 
filled. It  seems,  he  adds,  to  be  an  unreasonable  conten- 
tion; but  it  is  the  simple  truth.  Tlie  return  of  all  Israel 
to  its  native  land,  the  supremacy  of  Israel  over  the  nations 
of  the  earth,  in  a  word,  Israel's  glory,  is  still  expected  and 
will  not  be  realized  till  the  last  days  shall  come  (cf.  '•  The 
Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel,"  p.  186).  To  answer 
Kuenen's  observations  properly,  we  have  to  keep  in  mind 
that  a  double  sense  must  be  distinguished  in  prophecy: 
the  one  literal,  the  other  spiritual  or  typical.  Till  iiow,  no 
doubt,  most  of  the  prophecies  concerning  Israel's  glory,  or 
all  of  them,  have  been  fulfilled  only  in  their  spiritual  sense 
in  the  Christian  Church.  To  doubt  the  reality  of  such  a 
fulfilment  is  to  forget  the  important  truth,  so  often  in- 
sisted on  by  the  Fathers,  that  the  whole  Old  Testament  is 
a  preparation  and  a  type  of  the  New.  But  at  all  avents, 
the  apostles  have  hoped,  and  there  is  nothing  to  ju'cvent 
us  from  hoping,  that  the  Jews  will  finally  enter  the  king- 
dom of  God,  from  which  they  have  thus  far  freely  excluded 
themselves.  And  though  this  may  not  be  a  sufficient 
reason  for  imagining  that  the  temjioral  jiromises  of  the 
prophets,  not   accomplished    in    the    foundation    of    the 


FORM  OF  THE  PROniECT- ARGUMENT.  53 

Churcli,  will  then  find  their  fulfilment,  we  have  every 
possible  reason  for  maintaining  that  all  those  promises  will 
be  fulfilled  in  a  way  far  surpassing  the  expectations  of  the 
most  sanguine  believer.  For  are  they  not  the  predictions 
of  the  same  prophets  who  foretold  the  Babylonian  Cap- 
tivity more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  before  it  took 
place  (Mich,  iv,  8-10) — even  before  Babylon  had  gained  its 
independence — who  clearly  and  accurately  predicted  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  who  prophesied  Babylon's  cap- 
ture by  the  Medes  (Jer.  i.  1  f.),  and  Asia's  conquest  by 
Alexander  the  Great  ?  (Zach.  ix.  1-8.)  Since  God  has 
sealed  with  his  own  testimony  these  predictions,  he  has  also 
pledged  his  authority  for  the  truth  of  the  other  prophe- 
cies from  the  non-fulfilment  of  which  Kuenen  takes  his 
argument  against  us  (cf.  Trochon,  ''Introduction  gcnerale 
aux  prophetes,"  Paris,  1883,  pp.  xix.  ff.). 

;/.  Eelative  Truth  of  the  PuoPHECiES.—Thus  far 
we  have  proved  the  first  and  second  statement  implied 
in  the  minor  propositioii  of  our  argument,  that  there 
existed  Messianic  predictions  at  or  before  the  time  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  that  these  predictions  were  prophecies  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  word.  We  must  now  briefly  consider 
the  third  statement  im})lied  in  the  same  minor  proposition, 
the  statement  that  the  Messianic  prophecies  were  given  by 
God  in  testimony  of  Jesus'  divinity  and  divine  mission. 
The  logical  necessity  of  this  proposition  in  the  prophecy- 
argument  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  not  every 
event  predicted  by  true  prophecy  is  therefore  of  divine 
origin,  or  has  therefore  God's  sanction.  Jesus  really  pre- 
dicted the  treason  of  Judas  and  the  fall  of  Peter  without 
thereby  giving  his  approval  to  either  event.  In  the  same 
manner  he  foretold  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  at 
the  same  time  wept  over  the  fate  of  the  unfaithful  city, — 
a  certain  sign  of  his  disapproval.  The  coming  of  Anti- 
Christ  is  predicted  without  having,  on  that  account,  divine 
sanction  or  divine  authority.  In  the  same  manner  it  is 
not  owing  to  the  mere  fact  of  the  coming  and  birth,  the 


54  INTRODUCTION. 

work  aiul  siifferiiif^  of  Jesus  being  predicted  tluit  he  can 
cliiiin  to  be  a  messenger  of  (Jod,  and  to  be  one  with  the 
Father.  To  establish  tliese  claims,  Jesus  must  show  that 
God  has  given  his  authority  to  them  by  the  very  fact  of 
predicting  them  by  the  mouth  of  the  pro})hets, 

1.  Onjanic  Connection  of  the  Prophecies. — In  oi'der  to 
draw  our  inference  logically,  we  have  to  remember  that  the 
Messianic  prophecies  contain  a  double  element:  they  pre- 
dict certain  outward  events  whose  verification  can  be  per- 
ceived by  our  senses,  and  they  predict  certain  inward  prop- 
erties and  faculties  of  the  Messias  which  are  not  directly 
subject  to  our  sensitive  perception.  Now,  it  must  be 
noticed  that  these  two  linesof  predictions  are  so  intimately 
connected  tiiat  they  must  ])roceed  from  the  same  author; 
because  the  first  without  the  second  would  be  vain  and 
empty,  while  the  second  without  the  first  would  be  entirely 
useless  for  the  human  race.  The  former  might  be  the 
work  of  a  mere  mountebank,  and  tlie  latter  could  never  be 
})ractically  verified  so  as  to  affect  our  moral  life  and  our 
tenets  of  belief.  Hence  .the  two  lines  of  prophetic  pre- 
dictions are  inseparably  woven  into  one  organic  whole. 
If  then  the  prophecies  regarding  the  outward  events  that 
are  subject  to  our  exjierience  are  verified  ami,  therefore, 
proved  to  be  of  divine  origin, — for  God  alone  can  be  the 
author  of  true  prophecy, — the  prophecies  regarding  the  in- 
ward facts  that  are  above  our  sensitive  experience  must  be 
of  divine  origin  too — i.e.,  must  have  been  ins})ired  by  God, 
and  are  therefore  infallibly  true.  If,  e.g.,  the  event  has 
proved  that  God  really  foretold  of  the  Messias  that  he  will 
be  despised  and  the  most  abject  of  men, — a  man  of  sorrows 
and  acquainted  with  infirmity, — the  same  event  has  proved 
God  to  be  the  author  also  of  those  other  words:  "Surely 
he  hath  borne  our  infirmities,  and  carried  our  sorrows.  .  .  . 
He  was  wounded  for  our  iniquities,  he  was  bruised  for  our 
sins"  (Is.  liii.  3-5). 

2  Identilji  of  Sarred  (tint  Profttnc  Seer. — Besides  this 
there  is  another  way  of  inferring  God's  testimony  for  the 


FORM  OF  THE  PEOPHECY-ARGXTMENT.  55 

divine  mission  and  nature  of  the  Messias  from  the  Messianic 
prophecies,  or  perhaps  it  is  the  way  already  indicated,  but 
viewed  from  a  different  standpoint.  From  the  fact  that  a 
prophet  predicted  certain  future  events,  which  have  really 
come  to  pass,  it  may  be  inferred  that  God  made  him  his 
own  messenger  to  his  people.  Whatever,  therefore,  this 
acknowledged  divine  agent  either  said  or  wrote  concerning 
God's  kingdom,  or  the  time  and  manner  of  its  coming,  was 
based  upon  divine  authority.  The  prophet's  contemporaries 
certainly  had  no  other  way  of  ascertaining  the  true  pro- 
phetic nature  of  the  Messianic  predictions.  For  they  had 
not  yet  the  correspondence  between  prediction  and  fulfil- 
ment to  guide  them  in  their  belief  or  disbelief  of  any  given 
Messianic  prophecy.  The  negative  criterion  of  true 
prophecy,  laid  down  in  Deut.  xviii.  22,  could  not,  in 
the  Old  Testament,  be  applied  to  the  Messianic  fulfilment, 
but  was  observed  in  the  accomplishment  of  contempo- 
raneous events :  "  Whatsoever  that  same  prophet  foretelleth 
in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  and  it  cometh  not  to  pass,  that 
thing  the  Lord  hath  not  spoken,  but  the  prophet  hath 
forged  it  by  the  pride  of  his  mind :  and  therefore  thou  shalt 
not  fear  him." 


56  INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE  GENERAL  DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  PROPHECY. 

OX  perusing  the  records  of  antiquity  we  are  met  hy  two 
most  striking  features  pervading  all  the  productions 
of  literature.  On  the  one  hand,  a  universal  wail 
ascends  up  to  heaven  deploring  the  wickedness  and  the 
misery  of  the  human  race;  on  the  other,  a  universal  strain 
of  expectation  vibrates  in  the  human  heart,  looking  forward 
to  a  better  future  and  to  a  coming  redeemer.  Both  these 
features  deserve  a  moment's  reflection. 

1.  General  Misery:  <i.  Among  the  Egyptians  and  In- 
dians.— Tlie  aiK'iciit  Egyptians  and  llie  Indians  looked  u})()n 
life  as  a  time  of  penance  and  reparation.  According  to 
them,  the  soul  is  a  fallen  spirit  condemned  to  a  union  with 
a  material  l)0(ly  in  i)unishnicnt  for  its  previous  misdeeds. 
We  read  in  the  Veda  (v.  Bohlen,  "  Altes  Indien,"  Theil  1,  p. 
168):  "  What  joy  can  be  found  on  earth  where  everything 
grows  worse?  Kings  have  Ijccn  overturned,  mountains 
have  been  sunk,  the  pole  has  changed  its  })lace,  the  stars 
have  swerved  from  their  course,  the  whole  earth  has  been 
visited  by  a  flood,  and  the  spirits  have' been  thrown  out  of 
heaven."  Buddha  makes  the  absolute  and  necessary  con- 
nection of  sori'ow  witli  all  individual  existence  the  first 
of  the"  Four  Noble  Truths"  wliii'h  are  the  fundamental 
articles  of  the  Buddhist  creed.  It  is  written:  " 'I'liis,  (> 
Monks,  is  tlie  bnly  truth  concei-ning  sulTering.  Death  is 
sulTeriug;  old  agt;  is  sulTei'ing;  sickness  is  sulTering:  to  l)e 
uiiiled  with  wliat  is  not  loved  is  sulTering;  to  lie  jiarted 
IVnin  what  is  l()ve(l  is  sulTering;  m»t  to  attain  om-'s  desires  is 


DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  PROPHECY.  57 

suffering"  (Kellogg,  "The  Light  of  Asia  and  the  Light  of 
the  World,"  London,  1885,  p.  12). 

b.  Among  the  Persians  and  Mexicans. — According  to 
Zoroaster  the  world  is  at  jjresent  ruled  by  Ahriman;  and 
the  old  Mexicans  said  to  the  child  at  baptism :  "  Dear 
child,  Onieteuctli  and  Omecihuatle  have  created  thee  in 
heaven  and  have  sent  thee  on  the  earth.  But  know  that  life, 
which  thou  now  beginnest,  is  sad,  laborious,  and  full  of 
miseries,  and  thou  shalt  not  be  able  to  eat  thy  bread  without 
hardship.  May  God  assist  thee  in  the  many  miseries  which 
await  thee  "  (Clavigero,  t.  ii.  p.  86). 

c.  Testimony  of  Human  Sacrifices  and  Other  Rites. — Many 
of  the  pagan  traditions  explain  the  origin  of  human  sacri- 
fices by  recalling  the  time  of  the  Nephilim  and  the  murder 
of  Cain.  According  to  the  opinion  of  the  same  nations 
human  sacrifices  are  to  cease  at  the  end  of  the  present  era. 
The  Mexicans,  e.  g.,  believed  that  the  goddess  Centeotl  or 
Tzinteotl  (like  the  Greek  goddess  of  justice,  who  had 
disappeared  on  account  of  human  sin,  but  was  to  return  at 
the  end)  would  finally  gain  the  victory,  abolish  human 
sacrifices,  and  substitute  the  offering  of  the  firstlings  of 
the  harvest  in  their  place.  In  the  same  manner,  the  Indian 
Kali  (the  fallen  Eve)  has  caused  death  and  human  sacrifice 
alike.  But  she  rules  only  over  the  present  age,  and  the  good 
Durga-Bhawani  will  return  and  gain  the  victory  (Hum- 
boldt, "  Ans.  der  Cord."  ii.  p.  60).  Again,  the  ceremonies  of 
baptism,  circumcision,  and  the  other  rites  of  purification 
following  among  so  many  nations  the  birth  of  the  child, 
are  as  many  signs  of  the  general  belief  in  man's  innatp 
depravity. 

d.  The  Greek  Sages. — Tlie  testimor^y  of  the  Greek  lite- 
rature is  especially  important  in  this  question  of  an  early 
belief  in  man's  fall,  because  among  the  Greek  writers  we 
meet  not  only  prating  collectors  of  every  myth  and  fable, 
but  men  of  world-wide  wisdom.  Hesiod  speaks  of  tlie  iron 
age  consuming  man  in  labor  and  sorrow  (Op.  et  dies,  edit. 
Lipsi;\3  1778,  v.  176-181);  Homer  considers  man  the  most 


58  INTRODUCTION. 

iniser<il)le  of  all  tliat  lives  and  moves  on  the  face  of  the 
earth  (Iliad,  xvii.  44G,  447;  cf.  xxiv.  522  ff.);  and  the 
ancient  oracle  given  according  to  tradition  by  Silenus  to 
Midas  (Arist,  ap.  Pint,  consol.  ad  Apoll.  p.  27;  cf.  Cicero, 
Tuscnl.  Disp.  1,  4S)  states  that  it  is  best  for  man  not  to  be 
born. 

e.  The  Later  Greek  Writers. — The  opinion  of  the  later 
scientific  Greeks  jierfectly  agrees  with  that  of  the  earliest 
writers  of  fable.  For  though  at  first  sight  the  fully  de- 
veloped Greek  religion  presents  an  aspect  of  cheerfulness, 
especially  when  it  is  compared  with  the  melancholy  and 
penitential  religious  systems  of  the  East,  still  the  great- 
est thinkers  of  the  nation,  one  and  all,  maintain  the  exist- 
ence of  a  universal  sorrow.  Socrates  is  of  opinion  that  we 
must  cling  to  the  best  of  human  beliefs  as  to  aboard  on  the 
ocean,  till  we  shall  be  favored  with  the  safety  of  a  divine 
boat  (Pha'do,  p.  85,  D).  The  same  sage  advises  Alcibiades 
to  wait  with  his  sacrifices  till  Providence  shall  takeaway  his 
blindness  and  teach  him  how  to  behave  toward  man  and 
God  (Alcibiades,  ii.  pp.  150, 151).  Plato  describes  the  lot  of 
the  just  man  on  earth  in  so  vivid  and  true  a  manner  that 
many  have  seen  in  his  words  a  prophecy  of  Christ's  suffer- 
ings: "The  just  man  who  does  not  only  appear  to  be  just, 
but  is  so  in  truth,  will  be  l)Ound,  scourged,  tortured,  blinded 
in  l)ot]i  eyes,  and  finally,  after  suffering  all  ])ossible  pain,  he 
will  be  hanged;  and  then  he  will  understand  that  one  must 
not  wish  to  be  just,  but  only  to  appear  so"  (De  rep.  ii.  362). 

/.  Greek  Philosophic  Thought. — Though  Plato  describes 
the  idt'ul  state,  he  at  the  same  time  maintains  that  it  exists 
nowhere  on  earth,  and  in  conclusion  he  consoles  man  with 
the  view  of  the  future  life  (De  rep.  c.  x. ;  Phanl.  24fi). 
Krantor,  a  disciple  of  Plato's  school,  teaches  that  life  has 
through  man's  guilt  iK-comc  lal)()ri()us  and  wretched.  In  no 
one  is  it  found  in  its  normal  condition  (Pint.  cons,  ad  Ajioll. 
p.  ;{2;5,  ed.  Ilutten).  Timreus  of  Lokri,  an  adherent  of  the 
Pythagora-an  school,  confesses  that  the  struggle  in  us  be- 
tween   irood  and  evil  is  owinjr  more  to  the  iruilt  of  our 


DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  FHOPUECY.  69 

ancestors  than  to  tlie  elements  of  which  our  nature  is  com- 
posed (De  auima  mundi,  p.  103).  In  general,  that  life  is  a 
state  of  captivity,  a  penitential  state  or  a  sickness,  is  de- 
fended throughout  by  the  pagan  philosophers  from  Pytha- 
goras down  to  Cicero.  The  cry  of  anguish  rising  up  to 
heaven  from  suffering  human  nature  is  well  symbolized  in 
Prometheus  riveted  to  the  hardest  rock,  and  having  his 
heart  eaten  by  the  vulture.  The  "  worm  that  dieth  not "  of 
the  New  Testament  and  the  "  conscience  "  of  the  Christian 
Ethics  could  not  have  been  represented  in  a  more  striking 
manner.  Well  may  St.  Paul  write  to  the  Romans  (viii.  22): 
"  We  know  that  every  creature  groaneth  and  travaileth  in 
pain  even  till  now."  Modern  paganism,  throwing  off 
what  it  considers  the  shackles  of  the  Christian  redemption, 
returns  to  the  same  state  of  wailing  anguish  which  we 
notice  in  the  literature  of  classic  paganism  (cf.  Byron's 
Cain,  with  Goethe's  comment). 

fj.  Testimony  of  Roman  Writers. — Man's  cry  for  help  and 
pity  grows  louder  the  more  civilized  the  human  race  be-- 
comes.  When  the  wisdom  and  the  civilization  of  the  uni 
verse  had  been  concentrated  in  Rome,  then  it  was  that 
Rome  groaned  most  piteously.  Cicero  (De  rep.  3)  says  that 
nature  is  not  man's  mother,  but  his  stepmother,  producing 
him  as  she  does  weak  and  naked  of  body,  timorous  and 
cowardly  in  spirit,  prone  to  passions,  and  endowed  with 
only  a  spark  of  soul  and  understanding.  And  Seneca  (De 
ira,  iii.  26;  cf.  ii.  9,  27,  de  benef.  i.  10)  considers  it  use- 
less to  cover  up  with  smooth  words  the  universal  malady. 
We  are  all  bad.  AVhat  one  blames  in  another  he  finds 
hidden  in  his  own  breast.  AVickedly  we  live  among  the 
wicked.  The  only  consolation  Seneca  can  offer  his  reader 
is  the  approaching  ruin  of  the  world  and  of  the  human 
race.  In  the  new  order  of  things  man  will  be  free  from 
vice  (Quaest.  nat.  3  sub  fin.).  Marcus  Aurelius  too  com- 
})lains  -that  the  iron  age  has  entered,  and  that  fidelity, 
honor,  justice,  and  truth  have  fled  from  earth  to  heaven 
{r(^v  Tipoz  eavToy,  1.  5).      The  satires  of  Juvenal  repeat 


60  INTROL  UCTTON. 

the  same  universal  fonipkint  (Sat.  xiii.  19-22;  xv.  70, 
71).  The  munber  of  tlie  good  has  been  reduced  to  that  of 
the  Nile's  outlets  and  of  the  gates  of  Thebes.  If  a  god 
deigns  to  look  down  upon  the  earth,  he  turns  away,  derid- 
ing and  despising  the  human  race.  In  the  epistle  of  St. 
Paul  to  the  Romaiis  we  find  the  explanation  of  the  fact 
that  God  allowed  man  to  fall  so  low  (viii.  20):  "The 
creature  was  made  subject  to  vanity,  not  willingly,  but  by 
reason  of  him  that  made  it  subject,  in  hope." 

2.  General  Hope  of  Redemption.— «.  The  Persians.— 
But  the  expectation  of  a  future  redeemer  is  not  less  univer- 
sally expressed  in  the  classical  literature  of  antiquity  than  is 
the  persuasion  of  the  fall.  A  glimpse  at  the  national  tradi- 
tions of  the  various  tribes  and  countries  in  the  ancient  world 
will  i)rove  the  existen.ce  of  such  a  universal  expectation,  and 
show  the  character  of  the  redeemer  thus  expected.  To 
begin  with  the  Persian  traditions,  they  must  be  considered 
connectedly  in  order  to  be  fully  understood.  Ahriman 
with  the  help  of  his  j)oison  overcomes  the  bull  Abudad. 
The  latter  when  dying  utters  the  words:  "  Behold,  what  is 
to  happen  to  the  creatures  that  are  to  come:  It  is  my  will 
to  protect  them  against  evil."  From  the  right  hip  of  the 
dying  Abudad  proceeds  Kajomords,  the  first  man,  and 
Ahriman  now  directs  his  fury  against  him.  After  a  thirty 
years'  battle  Kajomords  is  at  length  overcome,  but  he  too 
at  the  moment  of  his  death  utters  the  prophecy :  "  Thou 
hast  entered  as  enemy,  but  all  the  men  of  my  seed  will  do 
what  is  good  and  Avill  overthrow  thee"  (Zeudavesta, 
Budehesh.  3  and  4;  Kleuker,  Anhang  z.  Zend.,  Bd.  ii.,  Th. 
3,  p.  172). 

The  whole  setting  of  the  latter  prediction  in  the  Persian 
system  of  religion  shows  that  the  term  "all  men  "  does  not 
refer  to  all  the  descendants  of  Kajomords,  ])ut  denotes  only 
all  the  future  redeemers.  In  point  of  fact,  the  Persians 
apply  it  to  Zoroaster,  as  the  context  demands.  For  when 
rioshorun  is  standing  near  the  dead  body  of  the  bull  and 
laments  over  the  misfortune  that  has   befallen   the  earth. 


DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  PHOPBECY.  61 

Ormuzd  answers  him  in  the  following  way:  "The  bull  is 
fallen  indeed  through  Ahriman.  But  this  man  is  reserved 
for  an  earth  and .  a  time  where  Ahriman  will  have  no 
power."  Then  showing  him  the  Ferver  (spirit  of  Zoroaster), 
Ormuzd  continues:  "Him  I  shall  give  to  the  world,  and  he 
will  keep  it  pure  from  evil." 

Though  the  adherents  of  the  Zendavesta  apply  this  proph- 
ecy to  Zoroaster,  as  we  have  seen,  they  do  not  take  the 
latter  for  the  true  Messias.  Sosyosh  will,  according  to 
them,  be  the  true  and  final  redeemer,  and  the  two  proj)hets 
Osheder  Mali  and  Osheder  Bami  will  precede  him.  In  the 
last  millennium,  Osheder  Bami  will  appearand  bind  the  sun 
for  ten  days  and  nights,  convert  one  half  of  the  human  race 
to  the  law,  and  add  the  twenty-second  Nosk  or  part  to  the 
law.  Four  hundred  years  later,  Osheder  Mali  will  come, 
bind  the  sun  for  twenty  days  and  twenty  nights,  convert  one 
third  of  the  human  race  to  the  law,  and  add  the  twenty-third 
Nosk  or  part  to  the  same.  At  the  end  of  times,  Sosyosh 
will  appear,  bind  the  sun  for  thirty  days  and  thirty  nights, 
i.  e.,  extend  the  time  of  the  day  to  that  length,  add  the 
twenty-fourth  Nosk  or  part  to  the  law,  and  convert  the 
whole  human  race  to  the  Zendavesta.  As  to  the  birth  of 
the  three  redeemers,  all  three  will  be  born  of  pure  virgins. 
As  Zoroaster  sprang  from  the  seed  of  Kajoniords  the  first 
man,  so  will  the  future  saviours  spring  from  the  seed  of 
Zoroaster.  For  the  seed  will  accidentally  be  mixed  with  the 
waters  of  lake  Kasava,  where  the  three  undefiled  virgins  will 
conceive  when  bathing  in  the  water.  We  need  not  here  give 
the  further  details  about  the  victory  of  Zoroaster's  seed, 
about  the  virginal  birth  of  the  prophets,  and  about  the 
comet  Gurzsher,  corresponding  perhaps  to  the  star  of  Jacob. 

h.  The  Indians. — Turning  now  to  India  we  may  at  first 
imagine  ourselves  face  to  face  with  religions  that  are  at 
the  farthest  possible  remove  from  Christianity — religions 
that  leave  no  room  for  the  existence  of  a  God  or  of  a  re- 
deemer. Brahmanism,  indeed,  retains  the  name  of  a  God, 
proceeding,  as  it  does,  from  the  one  God  Varuna  to  the 


62  INTRODUCTION. 

worsliip  of  its  three  Inuidred  and  tliirty  millions  of  gods. 
But,  after  all,  the  world  is  for  the  Brahmanist  nothing  but 
an  emanation  from  Brahma,  the  absolutely  holy,  infinite 
and  impersonal  being.  Gods,  spirits,  different  castes  of 
men,  animals,  trees,  bushes,  herbs,  and,  finally,  the  lifeless 
and  the  inorganic  matter  proceed  in  regular  order  from  the 
same  impersonal  source.  Of  a  God  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
word  there  is  not  the  slightest  question. 

CoJisoling  as  this  system  may  seem  to  the  agnostics  and 
the  positivists  of  our  day,  Buddhism  is  still  more  congenial 
to  them.  Its  very  origin  commends  Buddhism  to  its 
admirers,  beginning  as  it  does  with  the  rejection  of  the 
whole  l^rahmaiiic  system  of  supjiosed  religious  revelation. 
As  modern  unlx'lief  is  noted  for  its  utter  contem])t  of 
authority  in  matters  of  science  and  of  religion,  so  did 
liuddha  speak  as  a  "plain  man"  who  had  sought  for  rest 
and  found  it  without  the  assistance  of  Brahman  priest, 
and  without  the  light  of  divine  revelation  (ef.  Kellogg, 
"  The  Light  of  Asia  and  the  Light  of  the  World,"  London, 
1885,  p.  l(i). 

Besides,  like  the  atheism  of  our  modern  scientists, 
Buddha's  atheism  is  modest,  negative  and  agnostic.  As 
Herbert  Spencer  thinks  that  "the  power  which  is  mani- 
fested in  the  universe  is  utterly  inscrutal)le,"  so  Buddlia 
believes  that  '*  there  is  one  thing  which  is  not  in  the  do- 
minion of  the  intellect — to  know  Avhence  come  all  the  l)e- 
ings  of  the  universe,  and  wiiither  they  go  "  (A.  Remusat, 
mcl.  posth.  121,  quotes  an  ancient  Buddhist  Sutta;  cf. 
Koeppen,  "  Die  Religion  des  Buddha/'  p.  2;U). 

Returning  now  to  our  subject,  both  lirahmanism  and 
Buddhism  recognize  the  necessity  of  redemption,  but  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  make  man  his  own  redeemer.  If 
tlie  Gospel  tells  us  of  a  God  who  became  man  to  save  the 
human  race,  lirahnuinism  sjieaks  of  man  being  i)hysically 
absorbed  into  God,  and  liuddhism  reveres  a  man  who 
liccame  God,  even  the  liuddlia.  who,  under  the  Bo-tree, 
attained  to  all  ])ower  and  knowU'tlge,     When  the  adherent 


DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  PROPHECY.  63 

of  Brahmanism,  after  his  millions  of  births  and  purifica- 
tions of  the  most  various  kinds,  is  finally  reabsorbed  into 
the  divinity  whence  he  had  emanated,  he  attains  to  his 
happiness  through  his  own  unaided  strength.  Similarly 
Buddha  did  not  save  man,  but  only  showed  him  how  he 
may  save  himself.  Buddhism  ever  insists  on  the  fact  that 
the  Buddha  attained  his  end  by  his  own  exertion  and 
mei-it,  and  that  any  man  who  is  willing  to  walk  in  the 
same  path  will  arrive  at  the  same  end.  Fully  in  accord- 
ance with  this  doctrine,  Buddhism  denies  the  existence  of 
an  impassable  gulf  between  the  brute-creation  and  man. 
A  pig  or  a  rat  may,  at  any  time,  become  a  man,  and  even  a 
Buddha,  as  Buddha  himself  is  said  to  have  been  at  one 
time  a  pig,  at  another  a  rat  (Kellogg,  ''The  Light  of  Asia 
and  tlie  Light  of  the  World,"  London,  1885,  p.  T). 

Gautama  Buddha  was  by  no  means  the  first,  nor  will  lie 
be  the  last  Buddha.  The  succession  of  Buddhas  is  believed 
to  be  without  beginning  and  without  end.  We  become 
acquainted  with  Gautama  first  when  he  is  living  at  an  in- 
conceivably remote  period  in  the  city  Amaravati  as  a  rich 
Brahman,  named  Sumedha.  Reflecting  on  the  vanity  and 
sorrow  inseparable  from  life,  he  determined  to  renounce 
his  wealth  and  become  an  ascetic,  that  he  might  attain  a 
state  in  which  there  is  no  rebirth.  About  the  same  time, 
Dipankara  Buddha  appeared  in  the  world,  and  as  on  one 
occasion  he  was  coming  where  the  ascetic  Sumedha  was 
staying,  the  Bodhisat  (he  who  is  to  become  a  Buddha)  cast 
himself  in  the  mire  that  Dipankara  might  walk  over  him. 
And  as  he  lay  in  the  mire,  beholding  the  majesty  of  Dipan- 
kara Buddha  with  unblenching  gaze,  he  thought  thus  :  "If 
I  wished,  I  might  this  day  destroy  within  me  all  human 
passions.  But  why  should  I  in  disguise  arrive  at  the 
knowledge  of  the  truth  ?  I  will  attain  omniscience  and 
l)ccome  a  Buddha,  and  save  men  and  angels.  Why  should 
I  cross  the  ocean,  resolute  but  alone?  I  will  attain  omnis- 
cience and  enable  men  and  angels  to  cross.  By  this  reso- 
lution of  mine,  I,  a  man  of  resolution,  embarking  in  the 


64  INTRODUCTION. 

ship  of  the  truth,  I  will  carry  across  with  me  men  and 
angels." 

This  is  the  much-vaunted  resolution  by  which  Gautama 
lUuldha  gaA'e  himself  up  for  the  salvation  of  man.  But 
how  does  it  coni})are  with  the  self-sacrifice  of  the  Son  of 
(Jod,  w'ho  gave  himself  up  for  our  redemption,  as  one  sent 
by  the  Father  ?  (Kellogg,  1.  c,  pp.  G5  flf.)  Whether  the 
forms  of  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism  thus  far  described  be 
regarded  as  very  ancient,  or  as  comparatively  recent,  is  of 
little  imi)ortance  in  the  present  question;  in  either  case  it 
is  certain  that  the  great  body  of  Indian  nations  recognizes 
the  necessity  of  redemption. 

c.  The  Chinese. — Turning  now  to  the  religious  ideas  of 
the  Chinese,  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  for  ages  they 
have  been  educated  and  lived  in  the  system  of  Confucius. 
Not  as  if  Confucius  could  claim  to  be  the  founder  of  a  re- 
ligion, such  as  were  Buddha  and  Mohammed;  but  still, 
his  maxims  and  principles  have  penetrated  into  the  very 
marrow  of  Chinese  life  and  Chinese  thought.  The  most 
telling  characteristic  of  Confucius  is  found  in  the  Luen-jue 
(Plath,  p.  89):  "  He  did  not  refuse  chosen  food,  nor  well- 
cleaned  rice,  nor  fine-cut  meat;  but  spoiled  food,  stale  fish, 
tainted  meat,  and  all  that  had  a  bad  color  or  odor  he  did 
not  touch.  He  did  not  eat  what  had  not  been  well  carved, 
or  what  had  not  its  proper  sauce.  Even  when  there  was 
abundance  of  meat,  he  did  not  overeat  himself;  as  to  wine, 
he  did  not  bind  himself  to  any  definite  quantity,  but  he 
never  allowed  his  mind  to  be  disturbed.  He  did  not  drink 
wine  bought  in  the  market,  nor  did  he  eat  dried  meat. 
Never  did  he  eat  without  lugwer, .  .  .  and  while  eating  he 
did  not  speak.  .  .  .  When  his  mat  was  not  placed  right, 
he  did  not  sit  down  on  it.  .  .  .  When  invited  to  a  well- 
provided  dinner,  he  changed  color,  stood  up,  and  expressed 
his  obligations  to  his  host."  From  this  description  we  see 
that  Confucius  was  nothijig  but  a  utilitarian  of  the  worst 
class.  Still,  even  this  Epicurean  materialist  announced 
that  the  truly  Holy  One  should  appear  in  the  West. 


DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  PROPHECY.  65 

Whether  we  refer  to  She-wen-lui-thsin  (c.  35)  or 
Chan-Thaiig-she-shao-tchiiig-thi  (c.  1)  or  Lini-theu-Thsio- 
uan-clui,  we  always  find  the  same  hope  expressed.  The 
minister  Pi  said  to  Confucius:  "Master,  are  you  not  a  holy 
man  ?  "  He  answered:  "  In  spite  of  my  greatest  efforts,  I 
cannot  recollect  any  man  worthy  of  this  name."  Pi 
replied :  "  Were  not  the  three  princes  (the  founders  of  the 
first  three  dynasties,  Hia,  Shang,  and  Dsheu)  saints  ? " 
"  The  three  princes,"  said  Confucius,  "  were  possessed  of 
boundless  goodness,  a  lofty  spirit,  and  an  unconquerable 
fortitude.  But  I  am  not  willing  to  decide  whether  they 
have  been  saints."  Again  the  minister  asked:  "  AVere  not 
the  five  emperors  (the  patriarchs  before  the  flood,  from 
Fo-hi  to  Shuen)  saints  ?  "  "  The  five  emperors,"  he  re- 
plied, "  were  good,  of  great  mildness  and  incorruptible 
justice;  but  I  do  not  know  whether  they  have  been 
saints."  "  But,"  continued  Pi,  "  are  not  the  three  illustrious 
ones  (i.e.,  the  three  so-called  Sanhoang  or  macrocosmic 
emperors  before  Fo-hi,  Tien-lioang  or  emperor-heaven,  Ti- 
hoang  or  emperor  -  earth,  Shin-hoang  or  emperor  -  man) 
worthy  of  this  name  ?  "  Confucius  said :  "  The  three  illus- 
trious ones  well  knew  how  to  employ  their  time  of  life; 
but  I  dare  not  call  them  saints."  AVholly  astonished,  the 
minister  exclaimed:."  Who  then  is  the  true  saint?"  Con- 
fucius replied  enthusiastically,  but  in  a  soft  tone  of  voice: 
"  I  have  heard  that  the  true  saint  will  arise  in  the  far 
West;  he  will  end  all  confusion  without  governing,  he  will 
excite  unconditional  faith  without  speaking,  he  will  i^ro- 
duce  an  ocean  of  meritorious  works  without  changing  the 
appearance  of  things.  No  one  knows  his  name,  but  I  have 
heard  that  he  alone  sliould  be  the  true  saint." 

The  old  prophecy  according  to  which  the  true  saint  was 
to  arise  in  the  far  West  caused  tlie  emperor  Ming-di,  of  the 
dynasty  Han,  to  send  about  65  a.d.  two  mandarins  to  the 
West  with  orders  not  to  return  until  they  should  have 
found  either  the  saint  himself  or  his  religion.  Arriving  in 
India,  the  two  envoys  accidentally  came  to  know  the  ris- 


66  INTRODUCTION. 

ing  sect  of  Biuldhisni,  and  took  it  for  the  expected  religion 
of  tiic  great  saint.  \\\  consequence  of  this,  tlie  Chinese 
Buddliists  highly  esteem  the  saying  of  Confucius,  ajiplying 
it  to  their  own  re})uted  prophet.  Omitting  numerous  other 
references  to  this  same  great  saint  in  the  Chinese  tradi- 
tions, it  must  be  noted  that  they  atti-ibute  to  him  almost 
divine  attributes,  and  even  s]ieak  of  his  sufferings  and  his 
battles.  Desguignes  (Mem,  de  I'Acad.  des  Inscr.  t.  45,  p. 
543)  maintains:  "In  China  there  exists  a  very  old  belief 
that  the  religion  of  the  idols  by  which  the  primitive  relig- 
ion has  been  vitiated  will  be  followed  by  a  new  religion 
which  will  last  till  the  end  of  the  world."  And  Ixamsay 
(Disc,  sur  la  Mythol.  p.  150;  cf,  Nicholas, "  Philos.  Stud.," 
Bd.  2,  p.  130)  tells  us:  '  The  books  T^ikyki  speak  of  a  time 
when  all  will  be  restored  to  its  primitive  splendoi',  owing 
to  the  advent  of  a  hero  called  Kiuntse,  i.e.,  shei)herd  or 
prince,  wlio  is  also  named  "  most  holy,"  "  universal  teacher," 
and  "  highest  truth." 

d.  The  Later  Arabians  and  Persians. — Passing  on  to  the 
nations  of  western  Asia,  we  meet  tirst  of  all  among  the 
writings  of  the  later  Arabs  and  Persians  the  fable  of  the 
pre-Adamite  .Solymans.  Solyman  Ilakki  distinguished 
himself  in  the  battle  against  the  demons  and  the  giants; 
but  Anthalus  he  could  not  destroy,  in  spite  of  his  repeated 
victories.  Consulting  the  goddess  Takuin,  the  mistress  of 
fate,  she  answered  him  that  the  victory  over  that  Solyman 
was  reserved  for  a  descendant  of  Adam,  who  would  reduce 
him  to  his  obedience  and  take  his  life  in  case  he  should 
refuse  the  oath  of  allegiance  (Liiken,  "Die  Traditionen," 
p.  3G0).  The  bird  Simmorg,  the  Pluenix  of  the  Arabs  and 
the  Persians,  revealed  according  to  the  fables  of  those 
nations  to  Thamuraz:  "  Another  Solyman  will  arise  out  of 
Adam's  race,  aiul  will  suri)ass  all  in  majesty  and  power, 
and  after  him  no  other  will  appear  on  earth  "  (D'llerbelot 
s.  V.  Soliman  ben  Daud, 'J'hahamurath).  These  traditions 
are  the  more  remarkable,  because  they  are  not  api)lied  by 
the  Mohammedans  to  their  prophet,  but  to  Solomon.     Now 


DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  PROPHECY.  67 

Solomon  himself  loses  his  magic  ring  and  falls  into  the 
power  of  Asmocli.  Subsequently,  his  wife  receives  the 
promise  that  the  Messias  should  descend  from  her.  As  to 
Mohammed,  he  is  identified  with  the  Paraclete,  his  name 
Achmed  agreeing  in  meaning  with  Periclyt;  but  notwith- 
standing all  this,  the  Mohammedans  expect  the  return  of 
the  Mahadi,  their  tenth  Iman,  born  in  the  year  255  of  their 
era.  lie  will  do  battle  against  Antichrist,  and  together 
with  Issa  (Jesus)  he  will  establish  the  reign  of  the  millen- 
nium. 

However  scanty  may  be  our  knowledge  of  the  ancient 
Egyptian  traditions,  we  know,  at  least,  that  they  expected 
an  Apocatastasis,  or  restoration,  at  the  end  of  our  present 
era.  The  Messianic  hopes  of  tlie  Egyptians  may,  however, 
be  traced  in  their  fable  of  Horns,  the  son  of  Isis,  and  of 
Osiris.  Erom  Horns'  very  birth  both  mother  and  son  are 
[)ersecuted  by  Typhon;  the  son  is  killed  and  sunk  to  the 
depths  of  the  lower  world.  But  being  destined  as  the  seed 
of  the  woman  to  kill  the  serpent,  he  rises  again  to  bind  and 
slay  Python  (Plut.  de  Is.  19).  Diodorus  tells  us  that 
among  the  Libyans  the  following  tradition  was  current: 
Amnion,  driven  out  of  his  reign,  predicted  the  coming  of 
his  son  Dionysius,  the  restoration  of  his  kingdom  by  the 
instrumentality  of  his  son,  and  the  latter's  divine  dignity 
and  worship  (Diod.  iii.  73).  In  the  light  of  this  prophecy 
we  understand  why  Alexander  the  Great  claimed  to  be  a 
son  of  Amnion. 

e.  The  Greeks. — Among  the  Greeks  too  we  find  Messianic 
expectations  based  upon  Messianic  prophecies.  Leto  or 
Latona,  after  her  fall,  must  err  about  and  is  persecuted  by 
the  dragon  Pytho,  because  she  has  received  the  promise 
that  her  seed  shall  conquer  and  slay  the  serpent.  She 
brings  forth  her  twins,  and  Apollo  now  represents  both 
Cain  (killing  Hyacinthus)  and  the  Messias  (conquering 
the  serpent  Pytho  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Parnassus).  But 
Greek  hope  was  not  satisfied  with  a  past  fulfilment  of  the 


68  INTRODUCTION. 

prophecy.  According  to  tlieni,  Apollo  will  return  at  the 
end  of  the  iron  age  and  restore  the  golden  age. 

Besides  Apollo,  many  other  Messianic  characters  are 
known  in  Greek  literature.  We  need  only  recall  Jason, 
Epaphus,  Perseus,  and  Hercules.  All  are  born  of  a  mortal 
mother,  but  conceived  of  a  god;  in  the  case  of  all  there  is 
the  characteristic  persecution  on  the  part  of  the  bad  prin- 
ciple; all  are  noted  for  their  victory  over  the  serpent  or  the 
dragon,  and  nearly  all  bruise  the  monster's  head. 

The  fable  of  Prometheus  illustrates  the  Greek  Messianic 
hope  most  beautifully.  Riveted  to  the  rock  in  punish- 
ment for  his  compassion  with  man,  and  fed  upon  by  the 
never-sated  vulture,  the  hero  gives  forth  the  oracle  which 
the  old  goddess  Themis  had  confided  to  him  alone.  The 
rule  of  Zeus  is  to  have  its  end  by  the  instrumentality  of  a 
son  whom  Zeus  himself  will  beget  of  mortal  seed.  More 
powerful  than  his  father,  he  will  give  Prometheus  his  free- 
dom (i'Eschyl.,  Prometheus  vinct.,  vv.  906  tf. ;  Pind., 
Isthm.  vii.  26;  Apollon.  Rhod.,  iv.  794  fF.;  Apollod.,  iii. 
13,5;  Quint.  Smyrn.v.  338;  Schol.  Hom.  II.  i.  519;  Schol. 
Lycophr.  178).  To  understand  the  oracle  right,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  Zeus  represented  among  the  Greeks  a 
double  character:  he  was  the  highest  god,  but  at  the  same 
time  he  was  the  originator  of  the  iron  age.  Hence  it  ap- 
pears that  the  conqueror  of  the  iron  age  and  its  Lord  is  at 
the  same  time  the  libei-ator  of  the  god  who  suffers  for  the 
good  of  the  human  race.  We  cannot  help  noticing  the 
difference  between  the  pagan  Faust  of  the  Christian  Goethe, 
and  the  Christian  Prometheus  of  the  pagan  yEschylus. 
The  former  leaves  the  discord  between  striving  Inunanity 
and  the  everlasting  deity  unsettled;  the  latter  saves 
Prometheus,  the  representative  of  mankind,  by  the  vicari- 
ous sacrifico  of  a  benevolent  god. 

/.  The  Germanic  Races.— We  find  the  Messianic  expecta- 
tions not  less  flourishing  among  the  Germanic  races  than 
among  the  Greeks,  the  Indians,  and  the  other  nations  of 
the    far   East.     Baldur   and   Tyr   are,   according   to    the 


DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  PROPHECY.  69 

German  fable,  the  sons  of  tlie  first  parents  Odin  and 
Frigga.  Baldur  dies  early  by  the  hands  of  the  blind 
Hodnr;  instead  of  Tyr,  properly  Tins  or  Deus,  we  find 
also  Thor,  the  giant  thunderer,  whose  role  seems  to  agree 
exactly  with  that  of  Cain.  In  his  Messianic  capacity  Thor 
reveals  himself  especially  in  his  battle  against  the  serpent 
Mitgard,  which  dwells  deep  in  the  abysses  of  the  sea.  But 
according  to  the  later  Edda,  Thor  will  not  conquer  the 
serpent  fully  till  about  the  twilight  of  the  gods,  i.e.,  the 
end  of  the  present  era.  Paganism  is  here  again  conscious 
of  the  Messias'  coming  at  the  end  of  time  in  spite  of  the 
mythic  endeavors  to  make  the  first  son  of  man  the  re- 
deemer of  the  race.  Among  the  more  recent  Messianic 
heroes  must  be  noted  Sigurd,  or  Sigfrid,  whom  the  old 
Northern  genealogies  place  in  the  fifth  generation  after 
Odin — i.e.,  in  the  time  after  the  flood.  In  order  to  connect 
his  descent  with  the  fall  in  paradise,  the  fable  starts  with 
the  eating  of  the  apple.  The  giant  woman  gives  the  ajiple 
to  Rerir,  who  eats  it,  and  in  consequence  his  wife  becomes 
pregnant,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  race  of  the  Volsungr, 
Sigurd's  family.  We  need  not  here  delay  over  Sigfrid's 
conquering  the  serpent,  regaining  the  golden  treasure,  and 
redeeming  Brynhilde,  the  enchanted  virgin. 

Besides  these  redeemicrs  of  the  past,  another  Messias  of 
the  future  was  expected  by  the  Germanic  races.  Descend- 
ing from  Odin  and  the  giant  woman  Gridr,  Vidar  will  be 
the  most  powerful  and  the  strongest  after  the  Lord  of 
thunder.  He  is  now  hidden,  but  when  at  the  end  of  time 
the  monsters  of  darkness  are  once  more  let  loose,  he  will 
destroy  the  Fenrirswolf  by  stepping  on  his  head  or  into  his 
throat.  For  this  purpose  he  will  be  shod  with  the  cele- 
brated shoe  made  of  all  the  leather  strips  that  will  be  col- 
lected till  the  end  of  time.  Odin  and  all  the  other  gods 
will  then  perish,  and  the  golden  age  will  return. 

g.  The  Celtic  Races. — Among  the  Celts  we  find  the 
traditions  concerning  King  Arthur  and  the  Parzival. 
After  travelling  about  in  the  world  and  destroying  all  that 


70  INTRODUCTION. 

is  bad,  Arthur  witli  his  knights  is  eiiclianted  in  order  to 
return  at  some  future  time,  and  tlien  restore  the  old  order 
of  things.  Parzivul,  the  son  of  Gtimuret,  the  biblical 
(Jonicr,  has  a  brother  Feirefiss,  entirely  unlike  himself. 
After  incurring  a  curse  by  the  murder  of  the  kniglit 
Gahewiz,  he  errs  about  in  the  world,  redeems  the  sinful 
king  of  the  holy  Gral  Amfortas,  and  reconquers  that  treas- 
ure; then  he  withdraws  into  the  desert  and  does  not 
return. 

/*.  The  Esthenians. — The  traditions  existing  among  the 
Esthens  concerning  Kalewe  Poeg,  the  son  of  Kalewa,  the 
god  of  thunder,  deserve  a  special  mention.  The  father 
first  ])roj)hesies  to  his  wife  the  birth  of  a  son,  who  is  to  be 
entirely  like  himself.  The  young  hero's  greatest  deed  is 
his  victory  over  the  old  sorcerer  in  the  sea  Peipus.  But  as 
we  learn  in  the  Kalewala,  while  Kalewe  Poeg  severs  the 
head  of  the  sorcerer  from  his  body,  he  loses  his  sword. 
The  future  redeemer  expected  by  the  Esthens  will  find 
this  sword  and  use  it.  According  to  the  Finnish  version 
of  the  Kalewala,  the  hero  is  named  Lemminkainen;  in  his 
youth  he  is  killed  and  cut  into  pieces,  but  he  will  be  raised 
to  life  after  his  mother  has  gathered  all  the  pieces  in  the 
realm  of  the  dead.  He  will  also  regain  the  Sampo,  i.e., 
the  lost  treasure  of  paradise,  in  the  land  of  the  northern 
giants. 

i.  The  Tribes  of  the  Pacific  Islands. — Messianic  expecta- 
tions are  also  found  among  the  wild  tribes  of  the  South  Sea 
and  of  America.  Anu)ng  the  Sandwich  Islaiulers  'w^p  meet 
the  old  tradition  that  their  god  and  the  first  nuin,  Poiio,  had 
left  the  island  in  the  following  manner:  His  wife,  having 
sinned  with  a  mortal  man,  had  been  thrown  by  the  enraged 
huslxmd  into  the  depths  of  the  sea.  Penitent  and  sorry  for 
his  deed,  he  set  out  in  a  boat  for  the  i)aradisiacal  land  Haiti, 
i.e..  Talieiti,the  nuither-country  of  the  Saiuhvich  Islanders, 
lioiio  left,  however,  the  consoling  promise  that  at  some 
future;  time  he  would  i-eturn  on  a  rich  fioating  islaiul^ 
bringing  with  him  all  that  num  could  desire.    AVhen  Captain 


DIFFUSION  OF  MESSlANIV  PROPHECY.  71 

Cook  first  landed  on  tlie  island,  the  inliabitants  took  him 
for  the  returning  Rono;  and  tliough  they  killed  him, 
they  even  now  venerate  his  bones  as  those  of  a  god.  The 
expectation  existing  on  the  Society  Islands,  that  at  some 
fntnre  date  a  miraculous  boat,  "  the  ship  of  the  Mawi," 
should  appear,  probably  refers  to  the  same  tradition  among 
the  inhabitants  that  at  a  remote  past  time  their  god  left 
their  island  in  his  boat. 

li.  The  Mexicans. — The  Mexicans  too  believed  that  their 
beneficent  god  Quetzalcoatl,  who  had  been  obliged  to  leave 
tlio  country  after  the  golden  age  had  flourished  under  his 
rule,  would  return  and  restore  the  former  state  of  happiness. 
Tlic  old  religion  with  its  human  sacrifices  was  then  to 
cease,  and  the  first-fruits  of  the  earth  were  to  be  ofi'ered 
instead  of  men.  The  return  of  the  just  woman  Centeotl 
would,  as  a  matter  of  course,  accompany  that  of  the  god. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  Mexicans  took  the  Spaniards,  on 
their  first  arrival  in  Mexico,  for  the  messengers  of  Quetzal- 
coatl. We  need  only  recall  the  words  of  Montezuma  ad- 
dressed to  the  new  arrivals:  "We  well  know,"  he  said, 
"  that  the  great  king  under  whose  obedience  you  stand  is 
a  descendant  of  our  own  Quetzalcoatl,  who  is  Lord  of  the 
seven  caverns  of  Navatlaka  and  riglitful  king  of  the  seven 
nations  from  whom  the  Mexican  empire  has  taken  its  rise. 
This  great  Quetzalcoatl  has  left  us  several  prophecies,  which 
we  look  upon  as  infallible  truth.  From  these  as  well  as 
from  tlie  records  which  for  many  centuries  have  been  kept 
in  our  liistory,  we  know  that  he  has  left  this  land  and  has 
sought  new  lands  in  the  East,  leaving  the  promise  that  in 
time  to  come  a  nation  descending  from  him  should  return 
and  change  our  laws  and  our  system  of  government." 

I.  The  Peruvians. — As  to  the  Peruvians,  they  had  very 
nearly  the  same  traditions.  Their  two  most  remarkable 
heroes  were  Inka  Manko  Capak,the  founder  of  the  empire, 
and  the  Inka  Virakocha,  its  restorer.  The  latter  had  proph- 
esied to  the  Peruvians  that  at  some  future  period  the 
'Inkas  should  lose  both  their  power  and  the  worsliip  which 


72  INTRODUCTION. 

was  paid  them.  At  the  same  time,  they  expected  the 
return  of  Virakoclia,  or  their  Messias;  and  an  ancient 
tradition  had  fixed  the  period  of  salvation  as  following  the 
twelfth  generation  of  Inkas.  In  point  of  fact,  the  twelfth 
Inka,  lluayna  Capak,  when  at  the  point  of  death,  heard  of 
the  Spaniards'  arrival  at  the  coast,  and  announced  to  the 
nobles  of  the  realm  and  to  his  sons  that  now  the  old  proph- 
ecy of  the  Sun,  their  father,  should  be  fulfilled,  and  that 
the  rule  of  the  Inkas  should  cease  with  himself.  Those 
strangers  who  had  landed  at  the  coast  were  no  doubt  the 
very  men  indicated  by  the  prophecy;  they  would  bring 
better  laws,  and  conquer  besides  the  kingdom  of  the  Inkas 
many  other  kingdoms.  The  Inka  Atahualpa,  the  son  of 
Cai)ak  lluayna,  saluted  the  Spaniard  Pizarro:  "Welcome 
to  my  lands,  Capak  Virakocha!" 

tti.  Domingo,  the  Algonquin,  etc. — According  to  tradition, 
a  similar  Messianic  hope  was  entertained  in  the  island  of 
Domingo,  and  communicated  to  Columl>us  on  landing  in 
the  place.  Even  in  Greenland  the  expectation  is  preva- 
lent that  towards  the  end  of  time  the  golden  age  will  begin, 
and  the  earth  will  assume  a  new  and  more  beautiful  form. 
"We  may  also  appeal  to  the  Algonquin  fables  concerning 
Manabozho,  or  Mishapu,  or  Hiawatha.  The  Christian 
Apaches  of  Mexico  identify  Jesus  with  their  serpent-killer, 
Tuballishine,  and  Tuballishine's  mother  Avith  the  virgin 
Mary.  The  traditions  of  tlie  Caribbean  Islands,  that 
formerly  a  son  of  the  god  Puru  had  come  from  heaven 
and  conquered  the  serpent,  seem  to  recall  the  story  of  St. 
Michael  fighting  against  the  dragon  (cf.  Kruse,  Urge- 
sebiohte  der  Esthen,  pp.  17()  ff. ;  Kalewala,  14,  15,  :M)  rune; 
Kotzebue,  Keise  um  die  Welt,  Hd.  ii.  p.  SS;  Ellis,  Keise 
durch  Hawaii,  Deutsche  Uebers.,  Hamburg,  1827,  p.  G7; 
Ellis,  Polynesian  Res.,  v.  ii.  p.  53;  Clavigero,  stor.  di 
Messico,  t.  ii.  p.  11;  Humboldt,  Vues  des  Cordill.,  t.  i.  ]). 
2(35;  AUg.  Hist.  d.  K.  Th.  xiii.  p.  2:59,  34(5;  Allg.  (Jesch.  von 
Anu'rika,  Th.  2,  p.   107;  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  Hist,  des 


DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  PROPHECY.  73 

Yncas,  1.  v.  c,  28;  1.  ix.  c.  15;  Kraiiz,  Gesch.  von  Groenl., 
Th.  1,  p.  2G3). 

With  the  exception  of  the  negro  tribes,  concerning  whose 
traditions  Ave  know  very  little,  all  the  pagan  nations  of 
both  the  old  aiid  the  new  Avorld  have  their  own  special 
Messianic  prophecies,  which  are  all  said  to  date  from  the 
very  beginning  of  man's  existence  on  earth.  According  to 
all,  the  present  iron  age  is  to  pass  away  when  the  race  shall 
have  reached  the  height  of  depravity.  The  age  of  sin  and 
misery  shall  cease;  even  the  very  gods  who^  like  jealous 
demons,  guard  the  world  at  present,  shall  lose  their  power, 
and  a  mighty  and  wise  ruler  and  hero  shall  spring  from  the 
seed  of  the  first  woman,  being  at  the  same  time  of  divine 
origin,  and  shall  crush  the  head  of  the  demon  and  initiate 
an  age  of  happiness  and  innocence,  not  unlike  the  original 
golden  age  of  the  world. 

n.  The  Romans. — a.  The  Etruscan  Seers. — We  have 
not  yet  mentioned  the  general  expectation  of  a  Saviour  ex- 
isting about  the  time  of  Christ's  birth.  The  prophecies 
referring  to  this  subject  spring  from  two  sources:  the 
Etruscan  books  of  fate  and  the  Sibylline  predictions.  The 
Etruscan  seers  announced,  even  during  the  civil  war 
between  Marius  and  Sulla,  that  the  new  age  of  restoration 
was  about  to  begin  and  would  embrace  eight  or  ten 
centuries  (cf.  Eei  agri  Scr.  p.  258;  Jahn,  Censor,  de  die 
nat.,  p.  45  adn. ;  Pint.  Sulla  vii.  p.  45G;  Suidas  s.  v.  Sullas). 
About  forty  years  later  the  priestly  prophet  Vulcatius  ex- 
plained the  comet  appearing  at  Caesar's  death  as  a  sign  of 
the  beginning  of  the  new  era;  but  he  is  said  to  have  been 
struck  dead  while  uttering  the  prediction  for  thus  betray- 
ing the  secret  of  the  gods  (Serv.  ad  Virg.  Eel.  ix.  47).  The 
restorer  of  the  golden  age  was  to  be  a  son  of  Zeus,  or  rather 
of  Apollo,  and  of  a  mortal  mother;  according  to  others  it 
was  Apollo  himself.  A  few  months  before  the  birth  of 
Augustus  there  happened  a  portent  in  Eome  which  signi- 
fied, according  to  the  Etruscan  interpreters,  that  nature 
was   about   to   give   forth   a   future  king  of  Rome.     The 


74  INTRODUCTION. 

frightened  senate  gave  orders  tluit  no  cliild  born  in  that 
year  sliould  be  allowed  to  live,  and  it  was  only  by  the 
endeavors  of  those  whose  wives  were  then  pregnant  that 
the  decree  Avas  not  entered  into  the  archives,  and  thus  did 
not  obtain  the  force  of  law  (Sueton.,  Octav.  c.  94). 
Nigidius  Figulus,  wlio  knew  the  Etruscan  books  of  fate 
better  than  any  one  else  understood  them,  predicted  when 
Augustus'  father  came  too  late  into  the  Seiuite  on  account 
of  the  confinement  of  his  wife,  that  the  Lord  of  the  uni- 
verse had  been  born.  Ilence,  Augustus  assumed  the  char- 
acter of  the  prince  of  peace  and  of  a  son  of  Apollo;  report 
had  it  that  his  mother  had  conceived  him  by  touching 
a  dragon  in  the  temi)le  of  A])ollo  (Sueton.,  1.  c).  On 
coins  he  called  himself  the  Saviour  of  the  woild,  "salus 
generis  huniani,"  and  had  himself  represented  as  Apollo 
(cf.  Patinus,  Notne  in  August.  ]).  24  aiul  Notfe  in  Cialb. 
p.  52;  Suetonius,  ex  recens.  Graevii,  etc.,  "^J'rajecti  ad 
Rhenum,  1703).  Ilence  Anchises  too,  when  i)redicting 
the  future  to  yEneas,  points  to  Augustus  as  a  son  of  God, 
who  shall  restore  the  golden  rule  of  Saturn  and  subdue 
the  whole  world;  his  advent  was  even  then  ])redicted  by 
the  oracles  of  the  Caspian  commonwealths  and  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Nile  (Virg.,  yEneis  vi.  792  ff.). 

ft.  The  Sihyllink  Sources.  —  Nor  is  it  only  the 
Etruscan  seers  that  predicted  the  Messias;  the  Sibylline 
books  are  even  more  jironounced  in  this  regard  than  the 
Etruscan  books  of  fate.  At  Ga-sar's  time  the  Sibylline 
announcement  that  a  king  Avould  bring  safety  to  the 
Konuin  ])eople  frightened  all  the  rei>ublican  citizens  of 
Kome  (CMcero,  de  devin.  ii.  54;  cf.  Epist.  1,  i.  1).  Vir- 
gil's fourth  Eclogue  has  been  considered  as  a  Messianic 
pro})hecy  even  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  (cf. 
Augustin.,  de  civ.  Dei,  x.  27;  ep.  155).  We  need  not 
re])eat  that  the  poet  himself  bases  his  prediction  on  the 
Sibylline  })r()phecies.  At  present  we  have  only  a  Jcwish- 
('hi'istiiin  etlition  of  these  j)n'dicti(»ns,  which  is  un- 
douI)ti'(lly  much   interjjolated  and    mutilated.     'J'ho   true 


DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  PROPHECT.  15 

Sibylline  prophecies  were  destroyed  by  the  burning  of  the 
capitol;  but  about  77  B.C.  they  were  again  carefully  col- 
lected, so  that  Virgil  may  well  refer  to  the  original  text. 
Even  Horace  (Carm.  1,  od.  2)  and  Lactantius  (Instit.  1. 
vii.  c.  18  and  24)  seems  to  paraphrase  certain  portions  of 
the  same  predictions.  The  Sibylline  prophecies  were  so 
much  circulated  at  the  time  of  Augustus  that  he  found  it 
necessary  to  have  all  private  copies  collected  and  burnt 
(Sueton.,  Octav.  c.  31).  The  same  process  was  repeated 
under  the  reign  of  Tiberius  (of.  Hartung,  "Eel.  der 
Romer,"  Th.  1,  p.  134). 

y.  Despair  at  Non-fulfilment.  —  And  when  the 
general  expectation  of  the  pagan  world  seemed  not  to  be 
fulfilled,  a  kind  of  universal  despair  took  the  place  of  the 
Messianic  hope.  The  predictions  concerning  the  end  of 
the  world,  which  too  were  contained  in  the  Sibylline  books, 
began  to  occupy  men's  minds,  and  the  philosophic  writers 
began  to  consider  the  way  and  manner  in  which  that  de- 
struction would  take  place.  Such  considerations  we  find 
in  Seneca  (Qusest.  Nat.  1.  iii.  sub  fin.),  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat. 
vii.  16),  the  younger  Pliny  (Sec.  Epist.  1.  vi.  20),  Dio 
Cassius  (cf.  Sepp,  "Lebeu  Jesu,"  Bd.  i.  p.  331),  and  even 
in  the  works  of  Lactantius,  who  relates  the  opinions  of 
what  he  calls  the  worldly  prophets  (Instit.  vii.  14). 

d.  Origin  of  Messianic  Prophecy.— If  it  be  asked 
whence  these  Messianic  predictions  could  have  originated 
among  the  pagan  nations  of  the  ancient  world,  the  answer 
may  be  reduced  to  three  or  four  heads:  1.  On  the  only 
true  supposition  that  all  men  descend  from  Adam,  the 
pagan  Messianic  ideas  may  be  remnants  of  a  primeval 
revelation.  And  should  one  consider  this  source  insuf- 
ficient to  account  for  the  numberless  recollections  that  are 
left  to  the  heathen  nations,  one  might  2.  admit  that  God 
granted  from  time  to  time  a  more  than  ordinary  foresight 
to  tlie  pagan  predictors  of  the  future,  or  3.  appeal  to  the 
intercourse  between  the  Jews  and  the  various  nations,  or  at 
least   to    the   spread    of   tlie  Jewish    prophetic   literature 


70  INTRODUCTION. 

among  the  literary  men  of  the  ancient  world.  To  say  that 
the  agreement  of  the  various  national  Messianic  hopes  is 
due  to  chance  is  surely  a  most  unscientific  way  of  explain- 
ing fvu  estahlished  historical  fact. 

o.  The  Hebrews. — a.  To  Solomox. — Coming  now  to  the 
spread  of  Messianic  prophecy  among  the  Hebrews,  we  find 
Messianic  predictions  in  tiie  shape  of  promise  and  threaten- 
ing in  the  Book  of  Genesis.  Immediately  upon  the  fall, 
hopes  of  recovery  and  salvation  are  held  out ;  but  the  manner 
in  which  this  salvation  is  to  be  effected  is  left  altogether 
indefinite.  All  that  is  at  first  declared  is  that  it  shall 
come  through  a  child  of  woman  (Gen.  iii.  15).  By  degrees 
the  area  is  limited:  it  is  to  come  through  the  family  of 
Sem  (Gen.  ix.  26),  through  the  family  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
xii.  3),  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  18),  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxviii.  14), 
of  Juda  (Gen.  xlix.  10).  Balaam  seems  to  say  that  it  will 
be  brought  by  a  warlike  Israelite  king  (Num.  xxiv.  17), 
Jacob  by  a  peaceful  ruler  (Gen.  xlix.  10),  Moses  by  a  prophet 
like  himself,  i.e.,  a  revealer  of  a  new  religious  dispensation 
(I)eut.  xviii.  15).  Nathan's  announcement  determines 
further  that  the  salvation  is  to  come  through  the  house  of 
David  (II.  Kings  vii.  10),  and  through  a  descendant  of  David, 
who  himself  shall  be  king.  This  promise  is  developed  by 
David  in  the  ^Messianic  Psalms.  Pss.  xvii.  (xviii.)  and  Ix. 
(Ixi.)  are  based  on  the  promise  communicated  by  Nathan, 
and  do  not  exceed  the  announcement  of  that  proi)hct.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  Ps.  Ixxxviii.  (Ixxxix.),  which  was  com- 
posed by  a  later  writer.  Pss.  ii.  and  cix.  (ex.)  rest  upon 
the  same  promise,  but  add  new  features  to  it.  The  son  of 
David  is  to  be  the  son  of  God  (ii.  7),  the  anointed  of  the 
Lord  (ii.  2),  not  only  the  king  of  Sion  (ii,  0;  cix.  1),  but 
the  inheritor  and  the  Lord  of  the  whole  earth  (ii.  S;  cix. 
0) ;  and  besides  this,  a  priest  forever  after  the  order  of 
Melcliisedech  (eix.  4).  At  the  same  lime  he  is,  as  typified 
by  his  progeiiitor,  to  he  full  of  sorrows  and  sulTering  [(Pss. 
x\i.  (wii.).  l.xx.  (Iwi.),  ci.  (<'ii.),  cviii.  (cix.)]  brought 
down    lo   tlie  grave,  \vl   I'aised   to  lifi'  without  corrui)tion 


DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  PROPHECY.  77 

[Ps.  XV.  (xvi.)].     In   Pss.  xliv.  (xlv.)  and  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.)  the 
sons  of  Core  and  Solomon  describe  his  peaceful  reign. 

/?.  Chronological  Summary.— The  following  table  ex- 
hibits a  chronological  summary  of  the  Messianic  prophecies 
as  they  are  represented  by  Vigouroux  (Manuel  Biblique, 
ii.  p.  472): 

FIRST    EPOCH:    THE    PENTATEUCH. 

I.  Period:  Adam. 

1.  Divine  promise  given  to  Adam  or  Protevangel 

(Gen.  iii.  1-15). 
II.  Period:  Patriarchal  Period. 

2.  Pro2)hecy   of  Noe  :    blessing  of   Sem    (Gen.   ix. 

18-27).  " 

3.  Third  Prophecy:  Promises  given  to  the  Patri- 

archs : 

A.  To  Abraham: 

a.  First  promise  (Gen.  xii.  1-7). 

b.  Repetition  of  the  same  (Gen.  xiii. 

14-17  ;  xvii.  1-9). 

c.  Confirmation   of   the  same  (Gen. 

xyiii.  17-19). 

d.  Repeated  confirmation  (Gen.  xxii. 

lG-18). 

B.  To   Isoac:    Repetition   of  the  jiromise 

(Gen.  xxvi.  1-5). 

C.  To  Jacob:    Repetition  of  the  promise 

(Gen.  xxviii.  10-15;  cf.  xxxv.  11, 12). 

4.  Fourth  Propliccg :    Jacob's  blessing  (Gen.  xlix. 

8-12). 
III.  Period:  Moses. 

5.  Fifth   Prophecy:      Balaam's  prediction    (Num. 

xxiv.  17). 

6.  Sixth  Prophecy :  Moses  prophesies  (Deut.  xviii. 

15-19). 


78 


INTRODUCriON. 


SECOND   EPOCH  :     FROM    SAMUEL   TO   DAVID. 

I.  Prophecies  contained  in  tlie  historical  hooks: 

1.  Canticle  of  Anna  (I.  Kinj^s  ii.  10). 

2.  Davidic  promises  (II.   Kings  vii.  8-lC;    cf.  III. 

Kings  xi.  29-39). 
II.  Prophecies  contained  in  the  Psalms: 

1.  The  glorious  Messias  (Pss.  ii.,    xliv.,   Ixxi.,  cix.). 

2.  The   suffering    Messias  (Pss.    xv.,   xxi.,    xxxix., 

xl.,  Ixviii.). 
III.  Prophecies  among  the  Gentiles  (Job  xix.  21,  27). 

THIRD   EPOCH  :     PKOPHETISM. 


1.  Joel   ii.  28-32. 

2.  Jonas  (as  type)  ii.  1. 

3.  Amos  ix.  11. 

4.  Osee   i.-iii.;    vi.;    xi.    1; 

xiii. 

5.  Micheas  iv.-v. 

G.  Isaias  ii.-iv. ;  v.;  vi. ;  vii.- 
ix.;  xi. ;  xii.;  xxviii.; 
xxix.  14;  xxxiii.  IS; 
XXXV.;  xl.  l-ll;  xl.  1- 
9;  xlix.;  1.;  Hi.;  liii.; 
liv. ,  Iv.;  lix.;  Ix. ;  Ixi. ; 
Ixiii.  l-G;  Ixv. ;  Ixvi. 

7.  Nahum  i.  15. 


8.  Jeremias  ii.  21 ;  iii,l-19; 

xi.    19  ;      xxiii.    1-8  ; 
xxxi.;  xxxiii. 

9.  Baruch  iii.  24-38. 

10.  Ezechiel  xi.  14-21;  xvii. 

22-24;    xxxi  v.   20-31; 
xxxvi.  lG-32;  xxxvii. 

11.  Daniel  ii.;  vii.;  ix.   21- 


12.  Aggeus  ii.  1-10. 

13.  Zacharias  ii.  8-13.;  iii.; 
vi.  9-1");  ix.;  xii.-xiv. 

14.  Mahichias  i.  10,  U;  iii. 
l-G;  iv.  5,  G. 

Appendix:    Books  immediately  preceding   the   advent  of 
Christ:  I.  Mach.  iv.  4G;  xiv.  41;  Wisd.  ii.  11-20. 

y.  From  Solomon  to  Ezechias. — Between  Solomon  and 
Ezechias  intervened  some  two  hundred  years,  during  whicli 
the  voice  of  prophecy  was  silent.  Tlie  Messianic  con- 
ception entertained  at  this  time  by  the  Jews  may  have 
been  that  of  a  king  of  the  royal  house  of  David,  who  should 
arise  and  gatlier  under  his  peaceful  S(>e})tre  both  his  own 
peoido  a!id  the  (ientile  nations.  Sutlicient  allusion  to  his 
prophetical  and  priestly  oHices  had  been  made  to  create 
thoughtful   con.sidc'ration ;  but  as  yet  there  was  no  clear 


DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  PROPnECY.  79 

delineation  of  these  Messianic  characteristics.  It  was 
reserved  for  the  prophets  to  bring  out  these  features  more 
distinctly. 

d.  The  Prophets. — The  seventeen  prophets  may  be 
divided  into  four  groups:  I.  The  prophets  of  the  Northern 
Kingdom,  89G-723  B.C.  (641):  Osee,  Amos,  Joel,  Jonas; 
2.  The  prophets  of  the  Southern  Kingdom,  889-588  B.C.: 
Isaias,  Jeremias,  Baruch,  Abdias,  Micheas,  Nahum,  Haba- 
cuc,  Sophonias;  3.  The  prophets  of  the  Captivity,  594-536 
B.C.:  Ezechiel  and  Daniel;  4.  The  prophets  of  the  Return, 
530-424  B.C. :  Aggeus,  Zacharias,  Malachias.  In  this  great 
period  of  prophecy  there  is  no  longer  any  chronological 
development  of  Messianic  prophecy,  as  in  the  earlier  period, 
previous  to  Solomon.  Each  prophet  adds  a  feature,  more 
or  less  clear.  Combine  the  features,  and  we  have  a  portrait. 
But  it  does  no  longer  grow  gradually  and  perceptibly 
under  the  hands  of  the  several  artists.  Here  then  the  task 
of  tracing  the  chronological  progress  of  the  Messianic 
revelation  comes  to  an  end:  its  culminating  point  may  be 
seen  in  the  prophecy  of  Is.  lii.  13-15  and  liii.  We  here 
read  of  the  Servant  of  God,  lowly  and  despised,  full  of 
grief  and  suffering,  oppressed,  condemned  as  a  malefactor, 
and  put  to  death.  But  his  sufferings  are  not  for  his  own 
sake,  for  he  had  never  been  guilty  of  fraud  or  violence: 
they  are  spontaneouslyundergone,  patiently  borne,  and  vica- 
rious in  their  nature ;  by  God's  special  appointment  they  have 
an  atoning,  reconciling,  and  justifying  efficacy.  The  result 
of  his  sacrificial  offering  is  to  be  his  exaltation  and  triumph. 
By  the  path  of  humiliation  and  expiatory  suffering  he  is  to 
reach  the  state  of  glory  foreshown  by  David  and  Solomon. 
The  prophetic  character  of  the  Messias  is  described  by 
Isaias  in  other  parts  of  his  book,  as  the  atoning  work  is 
predicted  in  chapters  lii.  and  liii. 

e.  Result. — By  the  time  of  Ezechias,  therefore, — for  the 
theory  of  a  Deutero-Isaias  living  in  the  days  of  the  Captivity 
has  never  been  satisfactorily  established, — the  portrait  of 
the  God-man,  at  once  King,  Priest,  Prophet,  and  Redeemer, 


80 


INTRODUCTION. 


liad  been  dniwii  in  all  its  essential  features.  The  con- 
temporary and  later  prophets  added  certain  particulars  and 
details  (cf.  Mich.  v.  2;  Dan.  vii.  9;  Zach.  vi.  13;  Mai.  iv.  2), 
and  then  the  conception  was  left  to  await  its  realization 
after  an  interval  of  some  four  hundred  years  from  the  date 
of  the  last  Hebrew  prophet. 

C.  Division'  of  Prophetical  Books. — The  Jews  divide 
the  prophetical  books  into  two  classes,  one  of  which  con- 
tains the  prophetical  historical  writings,  the  other  the 
])rophetieal  predictive  ones.  The  first  class  embraces 
the  books  of  Josue,  Judges,  I.,  II.,  III.,  IV.  Kings; 
the  later  prophets,  who  constitute  the  second  class, 
are  divided  into  the  Greater  and  the  Lesser  Prophets. 
Isaias,  Jeremias,  and  Ezechiel  are  the  Greater  Prophets; 
Daniel,  who  is  by  us  reckoned  as  a  Greater  Prophet,  stands 
in  the  Hebrew  text  between  Esther  and  Esdras.  This 
position  is  owing  to  the  exceptional  character  of  his  office 
(Smith,  "  Diction,  of  Bible,"  under  lUiruch;  Ilengstenberg, 
"  Ghristology,"  ii.;  Delitzsch,  "  Messian.  Prophecy,"  etc.). 

//.  OiiKONOLOGY  OF  THE  Phophets.— Authorities  do  not 
agree  concerning  the  chronological  order  of  the  prophets. 
A  few  probable  chronological  arrangements  are  exhibited 
in  the  followinc:  table: 


LKX. 

Hehr.  Text. 

Verxion. 

De  IVette. 

Keil 

Slaiiletj. 

Ciilmet. 

Period 

1. 

Osce. 

O.'^ee. 

Joel. 

Abdias. 

Joel. 

Osee. 

c. 

800. 

o 

Joel. 
Amos, 

Amos. 
Michens. 

Jonas. 
Amos. 

Joel. 
Jonas. 

Jonas. 
Osee. 

Amos. 
Isaias. 

c. 

3. 

790. 

4. 

Alxlias. 

Joel. 

Osee. 

Amos. 

Amos. 

Jonas. 

c. 

78.5. 

5. 

Jonas. 

Abdias. 

Micheas. 

Osee. 

Isaias. 

3Iiclieas. 

c. 

72.5. 

6. 

Miclieas. 

.Jonas. 

Nahum. 

Jlidieas. 

Micheas. 

Nahum. 

c. 

710. 

7. 

Naliuni. 

Nahiim. 

Soplioiiias. 

Nahiini. 

Naliuni. 

.If  reuiias. 

c. 

610. 

8. 

Habacuc. 

Habaeuc. 

Habacuc. 

Habacuc. 

Zacliarias. 

Haruch. 

c. 

005. 

9. 

Soplioiiias. 

.  Sophonias. 

Abdias. 

Sophonias. 

Sophonias 

.  Sophonias. 

c. 

.570. 

10. 

Ak'Keiis. 

AK^eus. 

Arkihis 

Afrgeiis. 

Habacuc. 

Joel. 

c. 

5-JO. 

11. 

Zacliarias. 
Malachias. 

Zacliaiias. 
iMalachias. 

Zacliarias. 
Malachias. 

,  Zachai'ias. 
Malachias. 

Abdias. 
Jeremias. 

Daniel. 
Ezechiel. 

c. 

Vi. 

410. 

13. 

(The  Greater  Prophets  are  not  in 

these  lists.) 

Ezechiel. 

Habacuc. 

14. 

Isaias. 

Abdias. 

15. 

Daniel. 

Aureus. 

10. 

Aegeus. 

Zacharias. 

17. 

Zacliarias. 

Malachias 

18. 

Malachias 

DIFFUSION  OF  MESSIANIC  PROPHECT.  81 

t9.  Other  Prophets. — It  must  not,  however,  be  imagined 
that  the  seventeen  prophets  enumerated  were  the  only  per- 
sons in  the  Old  Testament  who  were  endowed  with  the  pro- 
phetic gift.  According  to  St.  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom. 
i.  21,  M.  8,  869),  there  lived  before  the  birth  of  Jesus 
Christ  thirty-five  prophets,  including  the  five  pre-Mosaic 
ones:  Adam,  Noe,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and  five 
])rophetesses:  Sara,  Rebecca,  Mary  the  sister  of  Moses, 
Debbora,  and  Ilolda.  The  Jews  themselves  claim  to  have 
had  forty-eight  prophets  and  seven  prophetesses  (Seder 
01am  21 ;  cf.  Bartolocci,  Biblioth.  Rabb.  iii.  p.  457;  Calmet. 
.  Prol.  in  Prophet.  2);  St.  Epiphanius  (Fragm.;  cf.  Coteler, 
Not.  in  Canon.  Apost.  iv.  G)  maintains  that  up  to  the  time 
of  Agabus  (Acts  xi.  28)  there  existed  seventy-three  proph- 
ets, and  between  Sara  and  the  Blessed  Virgin  he  enumerates 
ten  prophetesses.  Since  it  seems  to  be  certain  that  from 
the  time  of  Moses  down  to  the  time  of  Malachias  there 
never  failed  a  prophet  in  Israel  to  explain  the  Law  to  the 
people,  and  to  prepare  it  for  the  coming  Christian  dispen- 
sation, we  must  hold  with  Cornely  (Introduct.,  II.  ii.  p.  280) 
that  the  true  number  of  prophets  is  known  to  God  alone. 
Only  a  few  names  are  mentioned  in  Scripture  besides  the 
seventeen  commonly  einimerated,  who  are  said  to  have  had 
the  prophetic  spirit.  Among  these  are:  Gad  and  Nathan, 
Ahias  and  Addo,  Semeias  and  Azarias,  Hanani  and  Jehu, 
Jahaziel  and  Eliezer,  Elias  and  Eliseus,  Oded  and  Urias, 
Holda  and  Debbora.  The  majority  of  the  prophetic  names 
have  not  come  down  to  us,  either  because  their  bearers  never 
wrote  down  their  inspired  predictions,  or  they  played  too 
insignificant  a  part  in  the  history  of  the  theocratic  king- 
dom (cf.  I.  Kings  iii.  1  ff.;  x.  5  fi".;  xix.  20  ff.;  xxii.  5  ff.; 
II.  Kings  xxiv.  11  ff.;  vii.  1  if.:  xii.  1  ff ;  III.  Kings  i.  8  ff.; 
xi.  29  ff.;  I.  Par.  xxix.  29;  II.  Par.  ix.  29;  III.  Kings  xii.  15; 
xiv.  1;  xiii.  1  ff.;  xii.  22  ff.;  xvi.  1  if.;  xvii.  1-4;  II.  Par. 
XV.  1;  etc.). 


82  INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  III. 

NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  TIJE  PROPHETS. 

1.  Verbal  Definition.— «.  Greek  Etymology. — The 
meaning  of  the  word  prophecy  in  Englisli  is  much  narrower 
tlian  that  of  npocpijxeia  in  Greek.  Hence  we  must  return 
to  the  original  Greek  meaning  of  the  word,  in  order  to  obtain 
an  accurate  idea  of  what  was  meant  by  "■  propliets."  Eusebius 
(Demonstratio  Evang,  v.  Proleg.  M.  2:],  345)  derives  the 
Greek  7rpo07;r//?  from  TTpoiPaiveiv,  to  show  beforehand, 
because  God  foreshows  to  the  pro})liet  wliat  is  to  happen  in 
the  future.  8t.  Thonuxs  (Sumnia  'J'lieol.  II".  ii"^,  q.  171,  a. 
1)  gives  a  similar  derivation,  compounding  the  word  out 
of  71  po  aiul  c/)aro?,  because  to  the  prophet  appears  what 
is  yet  far  off.  Suarez  rejects  this  etymology  (De  fide  disp. 
viii.  s.  3)  as  liaving  no  foundation  in  tlie  Greek.  He  might 
have  said  the  same  about  another  derivation  which  St. 
Thomas  l)as  tai<en  from  St.  Isidore  (Etymol.  vii.  8;  M.  82, 
283)  and  which  also  Sts.  Basil  (Comm.  in  Is.  102;  M.  30. 
284),  Chrysostom  (In  illud  "  Vidi  Dominum.  hom.  2,3; 
M.  5G,  111),  and  Gregory  (In  Ezech.  i.  hom.  1,  1 ;  M.  76, 
78G)  had  adopted,  explaining  prophet  from  7ipo(f>avai,  as 
a  predictor  of  the  future.  The  particle  npo  has,  therefore, 
atem})oral  meaning  in  this  ex])]anation.  Sts.  Chrysostom 
(Synops.  S.S.,  M.  ;")(),  317)  and  Gregory  (1.  c),  as  well,  as 
Theodoretus  (In  Psalm.  Pra^f.;  M.  80,  8G1),  well  under- 
stood that  in  reality  the  prophetic  office  was  not  limited 
to  predicting  the  future.  Cremer  has  suggested  a  local 
signification  for  tlie  particle  npo  (Bibl.  Theol.,  Worter- 
buch  der  neutestamenth  Griicitiit,  ed.  4,  Gotha,  188G,  p. 
826), so  that  "prophet"  means  any  one  speaking  in  public. 


NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  PROPHETS.         83 

Others  have  suggested  that  npocpavai  means  in  general 
"  to  speak,"  so  that  any  speaker  may  be  called  a  jirophet. 
II.  Stephanas  (Lexic.  ed.  Ilase  and  Dindorf,  s.  v.;  vi. 
2094;  cf.  Bleek  Wellhausen,  Einleitung,  p.  308)  is  of 
opinion  that  where,  in  classical  writers,  interpretation  is 
called  prophecy,  the  preposition  npo  is  used  instead  of 
vno;  but  such  a  substitution  is  by  no  means  necessary  in 
order  to  explain  those  passages.  For  as  in  Ttpo/^ovXos, 
TTpoSiKO^,  and  other  words  the  Ttpo  signifies  "  instead  of," 
so  Tt pocf)r)Tr)^  denotes  one  who  speaks  instead  of  another, 
especially  of  a  god  (cf.  Liddell  and  Scott,  s.  v.),  thus  ex- 
plaining the  will  of  that  god.  Hence  the  primary  meaning 
of  7Tpo(priTT]Z  is  "  interpreter."  Apollo  is  called  a  prophet 
because  he  is  the  interpreter  of  Zeus  (vEsch.  Eumen.  19); 
poets  are  called  prophets  or  interpreters  of  the  muses 
(Plato,  Phajd.  2G2  D);  the  priests  attached  to  the  tom})les 
are  prophets,  because  they  explain  the  oracles  delivered  by 
the  unconscious  and  inspired  /uavris  (Plato,  Tim.  72  B; 
Herod,  vii.  Ill,  note  ed.  Baehr). 

b.  Hebrew  Etymology. — This  may  be  called  the  classical 
use  of  the  word  npocprfT?]?:.  If  its  biblical  meaning  be  con- 
sidered, we  must  keep  in  mind  that  it  was  introduced  into 
the  Testament  version  by  the  LXX.  Now  the  LXX. 
translate  Nabi  (^^^t)  always,  and  Roeh  (^^~)  sometimes, 
by  7ipo(})r]Tijg  (cf.  I.  Par.  xxvi.  28;  II.  Par.  xvi.  7,  10).  Con- 
sequently, the  latter  expression  has  the  meaning  of  the 
former.  As  to  Nabi,  it  is  uncertain  whether  it  is  an  active, 
a  passive,  or  an  intransitive  noun. 

a.  Intransitive  Meaning.— Ewald,Fleischer,Delitzsch, 
Konig,  Miilau,  Volck,  Briggs,  and  others  maintain  that  the 
noun  is  intransitive.  Their  reasons  may  be  reduced  to  the 
following:  1.  Nabi  is  derived  from  the  stem  Naba  (r:::, 
N^:),  which  is  not  found  in  the  active  or  the  passive 
species,  but  only  in  the  reflexive,  either  Niphal  or  Hithpael. 
2.  Nabi  is  allied  to  Nub  (^"-),  which  is  used  of  the  com- 
ing forth  of  fruit.  Thus  in  Prov.  x.  31:  "The  mouth 
of  the  just  shall  bring  forth  wisdom."     3.  Nabi  is  similar 


84  INTRODUCTION. 

to  tlic  Arabic  Nuba'a,  to  rise  u]),  to  become  audible,  to  pro- 
claim, to  name;  Nabi  is  therefore  a  spokesman,  or  preacher 
(cf.  Briggs,  *'  Messianic  Prophecy,"  p.  15,  n.  2). 

(i.  Passive  MEANixci. — Tholiiek,CJesenius,KiK'nen,  Ilnp- 
fekl,  Kiehm,  Schultz,  Bunsen,  Davidson,  and  otliers  regard 
Nabi  as  a  passive  noun.  The  following  are  some  of  their 
reasons;  1.  Naba,  the  stem  of  Nabi,  is  related  to  Naba  "  to 
boil  up,"  "  pour  forth,"  so  that  the  prophet  is  one  caused 
to  boil  over  with  the  divine  word.  2.  Kachash  (dn")  in 
Ps.  xlv.  2  furnishes  a  similar  expression  for  the  utter- 
ance of  a  divinely  inspired  agent.  3.  N'um  (^^")  is  a  pas- 
sive form,  ajid  has  a  meaning  similar  to  Nabi.  The  op- 
ponents of  the  present  view  grant  that  N'um  has  a  i)assive 
form  and  moaning,  but  they  deny  that  Nabi  is  like  it  in 
form.  4.  The  Arabic  Naba'  a  is  more  likely  a  denominative, 
and  its  stem-noun  is  derived  from  the  Hebrew.  Hence 
the  Hebrew  form  Nabi  must  not  be  determined  by  means 
of  the  Arabic,  but  the  Arabic  must  be  investigated  by 
means  of  the  Hebrew.  The  opponents  freely  admit  that 
this  is  a  satisfactory  solution  of  their  argument  based  on 
the  Arabic  alone,  but  they  claim  that  it  does  not  explain  the 
Assyrian  form. 

y.  Active  Meaning. — Ewald,  Hoevernick,  Ohler,  Heng- 
stenberg,  I^leek,  Lee,  Pusey,  McCaul,  Fiirst,  lieinke,  and 
others  maintain  that  Nabi  is  an  active  form.  They  too 
have  their  special  reasons :  1.  The  active  sense  of  "  announc- 
ing," "  pouring  forth  the  declaration  of  God,"  is  more  in 
accordance  with  the  use  of  the  word.  The  passive  sense 
may  describe  the  state  of  the  prophet  while  inspired,  but 
the  active  is  descriptive  of  the  prophetic  office.  2.  The 
stem  must  be  derived  from  the  root  "  Ua  "  (cf.  Greek  "fa," 
Latin  "fari"),  and  the  prefix  Na.  Hence  the  true  mean- 
ing of  Nabi  is  to  "overcome  one  in  speaking,"  *' to  con- 
vince" (cf.  Elliott,  "Old  Test.   Proph.,"  p.  21). 

c.  Use  of  the  Word:  n.  Naiu. — Exodus  iv,  14-1 G  maybe 
regarded  as  the  classicMd  })assage  giving  the  meaning  of 
Nabi:  "  The  Lord  being  angry  at  Moses,  said :  Aaron  the 


NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  PROPHETS.         85 

Levite  is  thy  brother;  I  know  that  he  is  eloquent.  Behold, 
he  Cometh  forth  to  meet  thee,  and  seeing  thee  shall  be  glad 
at  heart.  Speak  to  him,  and  put  My  words  in  his  mouth, 
and  I  will  be  in  thy  mouth,  and  in  his  mouth,  and  will 
show  you  what  you  must  do;  he  shall  speak  in  thy  stead 
to  the  people,  and  shall  be  tliy  mouth:  but  thou  shalt  be 
to  him  in  those  things  that  pertain  to  God." 

If  we  compare  Exodus  vii.  1  with  this  passage,  we  shall 
gain  a  clear  insight  into  the  meaning  of  Nabi:  "And  the 
Lord  said  to  Moses:  Behold,  I  have  appointed  thee  the 
God  of  Pharao,  and  Aaron  thy  brother  shall  be  thy 
prophet."  Hence  Aaron  is  called  the  Nabi  of  Moses,  be- 
cause he  shall  speak  in  Moses'  stead  to  the  people,  and 
shall  be  the  mouth  of  Moses.  It  matters  little  whether 
the  words  that  Moses  will  put  into  Aaron's  mouth  refer  to 
the  past,  the  present,  or  the  future,  or  whether  they  con- 
tain universal  truths  abstracting  from  all  time — in  any  case 
Aaron  will  be  Moses'  prophet. 

/?.  EoEii  AND  CnozEH. — The  other  word  which  the 
LXX.  translate  by  7r/30(^//r//?  is  Koeh.  But  Chozeh  too,  like 
Eoeh,  signifies  "  one  who  sees/'  and  is  often  used  in  the 
Old  Testament  in  this  meaning.  The  three  words  Nabi, 
Roeh,  Chozeh,  seem  to  be  contrasted  with  one  another  in 
I.  Par.  xxix.  29:  "Now  the  acts  of  King  David  first  and 
last  are  written  in  the  book  of  Samuel  the  seer  (Roeh),  and 
in  the  book  of  Nathan  the  prophet  (Nabi),  and  in  the 
book  of  Gad  the  seer  (Chozeh)."  Roeh  is  a  title  almost 
appropriated  to  Samuel.  It  occurs  eleven  times  in  the 
Bible,  and  in  seven  of  these  instances  it  is  applied  to 
Samuel  (I.  Kings  ix.  9,  11,  18,  19;  I.  Par.  ix.  22;  xxvi. 
28;  xix.  29),  in  two  instances  it  applies  to  Ilanani  (II.  Par. 
xvi.  7,  10),  once  it  designates  Sadoc  (II.  Kings  xv.  27),and 
in  Is.  xxx.  10  it  is  not  applied  to  any  definite  person. 
Roeh  was  superseded  in  its  general  use  by  the  word  Nabi, 
which  Samuel,  who  is  himself  called  Nabi,  as  well  as  Roeh 
(I.  Kings  iii.  20;  II.  Par.  xxxv.  18),  appears  to  have  revived 
after   a  period   of  desuetude,  and  to  have  applied  to  the 


86  INTRODUCTION. 

prophets  or(];iinizo(l  by  liini.  The  verb  Kaah,  wlieiice  Roeh 
is  derived,  is  the  coiiinioii  i)rose-ex])ressioii  si*;^nifyin^  "  to 
see,"  wliile  the  verb  Cluizuh,  whence  Chozeh  is  obtained, 
Inis  a  more  poetic  coloring.  Chozeh  rarely  occurs  outside 
the  Jiooks  I'aral.,  but  Ciiazon  regularly  signifies  vision. 

y.  Dii'KKKKNcK  OK  UsK. — It  has  been  much  debated 
whether  tliere  is  any  dilference  in  the  usage  of  the  three 
words,  and  in  what  that  difference  consists.  The  various 
oj^inions  may  be  reduced  to  the  following  classes:  1.  Ilaev- 
ernick  (Kinleitung,  'I'h.  1,  Abth.  1,  p.  5G)  considers  Nabi 
as  the  title  of  those  who  otticially  belonged  to  the  prophetic 
order,  but  Koeh  and  Chozeh  as  designations  of  those  who 
received  a  prophetical  revelation.  2.  Dr.  Lee  (Inspiration 
of  Holy  .Scri})tiire,  p.  r)4;5)  agrees  with  Ha?vernick  as  to 
the  meaning  of  Nabi;  Koeh  he  identifies  with  Xabi  rather 
than  with  Chozeh  in  meaning,  and  Chozeh  he  explains  as 
denoting  a  prophet  especially  attached  to  the  royal  house 
(II.  Kings  xxiv.  11;  I.  Par.  xxi.  9;  II.  Par.  xxix.  25).  3. 
Dean  Stanley  (Lectures  on  the  Jewish  Church,  xxviii., 
xxix.)  is  of  opinion  that  Roeh  was  the  oldest  name  of  the 
prophetic  office,  superseded  by  Nabi  shortly  after  Samuel's 
time;  Chozeh  he  represents  as  another  antique  title.  AVe 
need  hardly  state  that  there  is  no  sufficient  ground  for  the 
latter  opinion.  On  examination  we  find  that  Xabi  existed 
before  and  after  and  alongside  of  both  Roeh  and  Chozeh, 
but  that  Chozeh  is  a  little  more  modern  than  Roeh.  4. 
Since  there  is  nothing  in  the  word  Chozeh  to  denote  the 
relation  of  the  j>rophct  to  the  king,  and  since  a  prophet 
appears  to  have  been  attached  only  to  David,  and  possibly 
to  Manasses  (II.  Par.  xxxiii.  IS),  it  would  seem  that  the 
same  persons  are  designated  ])y  the  three  words  Xabi, 
Roeh,  and  Chozeh.  The  last  two  titles  refer  to  the  prophet's 
power  of  seeing  the  visions  presented  to  him  by  God,  the 
first  to  his  function  of  revealing  and  proclaiming  God's 
truth  to  men.  This  agrees  with  St.  Gregory  Xazianzen's 
description  of  Ezechiel:  o  Tcoy  j^ieyaXoov  enonni^  Kai 
e^TjyTfrifi  juvcrrTfpiojy  (Or.  28). 


NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  TUE  PROPHETS.         87 

6.  Other  Names  of  Prophets. — It  may  not  be  out  of 
place  to  mention  here  a  few  of  the  other  titles  by  which 
the  prophets  are  designated  in  the  Old  Testament.  The 
following  seem  to  deserve  special  attention :  "  Malakh 
Jahveh"  (!tim''  '^^'t'?),  or  messenger  of  the  Lord  (Is.  xliv. 
26;  Agg.  i.  13;  Mai.  iii.  1),  "  ish  elohim"  (a^n^J?  d\S)^ 
or  man  of  God  (I.  Kings  ii.  27;  ix.  G),  "'bed  Jahveh" 
(rjirr'  "191"),  or  servant  of  the  Lord  (Is.  xx.  3;  Am.  iii.  7; 
Jer.  vii.  25;  xxv.  4  .  .  .  ),  "  ro'eh  "  ("3;"i),  or  shepherd 
(Jer,  xvii.  16;  Zach.  xi.  4),  "shomer"  ('^Ir"'^),  or  guard 
(Is.  Ixii.  G;  Hab.  ii.  1),  "tsopeh"  ("?^),  or  scout  (Am. 
iii.  G;  Is.  Ivi.  10;  Jer.  vi.  17;  Ezech.  iii.  17  .  .  .  ), 
"bachon"  ("P"?),  or  approver  (cf.  Zschokke,  "Theologie 
der  Propheten,"  Freiburg,  1877,  pp.  354  if.).  The  reader 
hardly  needs  to  be  reminded  that  these  names  express 
nothing  but  the  various  aspects  under  which  the  prophet 
may  be  regarded. 

2.  Definition  from  Effects. — a.  New  Testament. — St. 
Paul  (I.  Cor.  xiv.  3)  has  well  summed  up  the  prophetic  func- 
tions and  characteristics  :  "  He  that  prophesieth,"  the 
apostle  says, "  speaketh  to  men  unto  edification  and  exhorta- 
tion and  comfort."  Unto  edification  the  prophets  speak  to 
men  when  as  divinely  inspired  theologians  they  teach  the 
people  what  to  believe  and  what  to  do  in  order  to  insure 
their  eternal  salvation.  Unto  exhortation  the  prophets 
speak  when  they  pour  forth  tlieir  powerful  and  efficacious 
pleadings  in  order  to  soften  and  move  men's  hearts.  Unto 
comfort  finally  do  the  prophets  speak  when  they  predict 
tlie  future  glory  of  the  chosen  people,  and  the  rejection  of 
the  gentile  world,  the  end  of  the  Old  Dispensation,  and  the 
approaching  establishment  of  the  Church.  For  the  Law 
and  the  Prophets  have  their  centre  in  Christ,  so  that 
prophecy  is  the  figure  of  Christ  as  C'hrist  is  the  fulfilment 
of  prophecy  (cf.  Goldhagon,  Introductio,  ii.  p.  354;  a  Lap., 
\n  prophet,  prooem.  iii.).  Becanus  (Anal.  V.  et  N.  Test,, 
viii.  qu.  2)  maintains  that  the  primary  end  of  the  prophets  is 
to  teach  and  reform  the  people  in  the  true  worship  of  God, 


88  INTRODUCTION. 

and  thus  prepare  them  for  tlic  coming  of  Christ  (cf.  Panl 
Scholz,  "Theol.  tl.  A.  B.,"  pp.  77  ff.;  Knabenbauer,  "  Der 
Prophet  Isaias,"  Freiburg,  1881,  p.  5).  Hence  we  may  call 
the  prophets  the  supreme  and  authentic  teachers  instituted 
by  God  to  preserve,  explain,  and  evolve  the  Mosaic  covenant 
and  to  prepare  the  Christian  dispensation. 

b.  Old  Testament. — ex.  Proi'jiktk;  Authority  extends 
TO  ALL  Israelites. — If  this  statement  stands  in  need  of  any 
further  proof,  it  may  be  confirmed  from  the  Old  Testament 
history.  God  says  to  Ezechiel  (iii.  17-19) :  "  Son  of  Man, 
I  have  made  thee  a  watchman  to  the  house  of  Israel,  and 
thou  shalt  hear  the  word  out  of  my  mouth,  and  shalt  tell 
it  them  from  me.  If  when  I  say  to  the  wicked :  Thou  shalt 
surely  die,  thou  declare  it  not  to  him,  that  he  may  be  con- 
verted from  his  wicked  way  and  live:  the  same  wicked 
man  shall  die  in  his  iniquity,  but  I  will  require  his  blood 
at  thy  hand.  But  if  thou  give  warning  to  the  wicked,  and 
lie  be  not  converted  from  his  wickedness  and  from  his  evil 
way,  he  indeed  shall  die  in  his  iniquity,  but  thou  hast  de- 
livered thy  soul."  Consequently  we  find  that  the  i)rophets 
exhorted  and  warned  kings,  priests,  and  the  influential 
persons  of  their  time  with  the  same  liberty  with  which 
they  spoke  of  the  waywardness  of  the  poor  and  the  lowly. 
Samuel  announces  the  coming  judgment  to  Ileli  and  Saul, 
Elias  faitlifully  fulfils  his  mission  at  the  court  or  Achab, 
and  similar  instances  from  the  Old  Testament  might  be 
multiplied  indefinitely  (cf.  1.  Kings  ii.  27;  xiii.  10-14; 
XV.  12-30;  II.  Kings  xii.  1  IT.;  HI.  Kings  xi.  29  f.;  II. 
Par.  xvi.  7;  xix.  2;  Is.  i.  10  f.;  vii.  1  ff.). 

ft.  EMiiK.u'KS  PiuvATE  MATTERS.— The  authority  of  the 
prophets  not  only  extended  over  all  the  Israelites,  but  em- 
braced also  all  the  details  of  their  private,  public,  and 
religious  life  St.  Jerome  says  that  many  exanii)les  prove 
the  existence  of  the  custom  aniong  tlie  .Tews  to  ask  God 
1)V  means  of  His  prophets  wliatevt-r  tliey  desired  to  know 
(In  Kzeeh.  XX.  1).  Thus  Saul  asks  Saiiinel  eoneerning  the 
lost    asses,  .leioboani    sends    liis   wife    to   ask    the   j)ro])liet 


NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  PROPHETS.         89 

Ahias  concerning  his  sick  son,  Ochozias  is  ujibraided  for 
consulting  Beelzebub,  the  god  of  Accaron,  rather  than 
Jehovah  himself  about  the  issue  of  his  infirmity  (cf.  I. 
Kings  ix.  3  ff.;  III.  Kings  xiv.  1  if.;  IV.  Kings  i.  2  ff.; 
IV.  Kings  V.  15  fe.). 

;/,  Political  Affairs. — The  influence  of  the  prophets 
in  affairs  of  state  was  much  more  important  than  their  au- 
thority in  private  matters.  Even  after  God  had  granted 
kings  to  his  jjeople,  he  himself  retained  the  su^weme 
authority  over  it.  The  prophets  constantly  watched  that 
the  kings  might  rule  according  to  the  divine  law.  Samuel 
elected  the  first  king,  wrote  the  constitution  of  the  new 
kingdom,  rejected  the  sovereign  in  the  name  of  God,  sub- 
stituting David  in  his  place  ;  the  prophets  following 
Samuel  are  constantly  engaged  in  directing  and  instruct- 
ing David's  successors.  Nor  was  their  office  strictly 
limited  to  the  kings  of  Israel.  Foreign  nations  and  rulers 
were  at  times  the  object  of  their  prophetic  warnings  and 
threats  (cf.  Is.  viii.  19  ;  xxx.  2;  Jer.  xxxvii.  3;  xlii.  2;  i.  10; 
XXV.  15;  xl.-li.;  Is.  ii.  7-9;  xxxi.  1;  viii.  G;  xiii.-xxvii.; 
I.  Kings  viii.  4;  x.  25;  xv.  23-28;  xvi.  Iff. ;  III.  Kings  xii. 
22  if.;  xiii.  1  ff.;  xiv.  7  ff.;  II.  Par.  xvi.  7  f.;  xviii.  6;  xix. 
2  f. ;  XX.  14  ff. ;  xxv.  7;  III.  Kings  xix.  15;  IV.  Kings  viii. 
10  ff.;  Ezech.  xxv.-xxxii,;  Knabenb.,  Stimmen,  1880,  xviii. 
p.  274). 

6.  Religious  Questions.— Throughout  their  work  it  was 
the  constant  aim  of  the  prophets  to  preserve  and  confirm 
the  Mosaic  covenant,  and  to  prepare  Israel  for  the  new 
Christian  dispensation.  Hence  their  special  care  was  always 
directed  to  the  increase  and  the  furtherance  of  the  national 
religious  life.  Witness  their  constant  war  against  idolatry, 
their  incessant  endeavor  to  stir  up  their  fellow-citizens  to 
the  one  true  worship.  At  the  same  time  they  are  not 
content  with  a  merely  external  worship.  They  inculcate 
the  principle  that  obedience  is  better  than  sacrifice,  and 
that  humility  is  more  excellent  tlian  the  fat  of  goats  (I. 
Kings  XV.  22  ff.).     "■  Wash  yourselves,  be  clean,  take  away 


90  INTRODUCTION. 

the  evil  of  your  devices  from  my  eyes,  cease  to  do  per- 
versely, learn  to  do  well,  seek  judgment,  relieve  the  op- 
pressed, judge  for  the  fatherless,  defend  the  widow,"  such 
are  the  exhortations  we  find  in  the  prophet  Isaias  (i.  IG  f.). 
Meanwhile,  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  think  that  the  prophets 
neglected  the  observance  of  the  ritual  law  or  thought  little 
of  it.  They  repeatedly  insist  on  this  observance  too,  and 
even  add  new  determinations  and  exi^lanations  of  the  law 
promulgated  by  Moses.  "  Blessed  is  the  man,"  says  Isaias 
(hi.  2  if.),  "that  doth  this,  and  the  son  of  man  that  shall 
lay  hold  on  this:  that  keepeth  the  Sabbath  from  profan- 
ing it,  that  keepeth  his  hands  from  doing  any  evil."  And 
again  (Ixvi.  17) :  "  They  that  were  sanctified  and  thought 
themselves  clean  in  the  gardens  behind  the  gate  within, 
they  that  did  eat  swine's  flesh,  and  the  abomination  and 
the  mouse;  they  shall  be  consumed  together,  saith  the 
Lord"  (cf.  Jer.  xvii.  20-l'7;  xxxiii.  17  f.;  xliv.  21; 
Ezech.  XX.  12ff.;  xxii.  8;  IV.  Kings  xvii.  1 3;  iv.  23-42;  II. 
Par.  xxix.  25).  But  the  most  important  function  of  the 
prophets  in  regard  to  the  religious  life  was  to  increase  the 
deposit  of  faith,  and  to  keep  the  eyes  of  the  pious  Israelites 
on  the  glorious  Messianic  future,  thus  offering  them  con- 
solation and  strength  to  bear  np  under  the  heavy  trials 
and  national  calamities  which  were  constantly  befalling 
them  (cf.  Comely,  Introduct.  U.  T.  II.  ii.,  pp.  271  ff.; 
Elliott,  "  Old  Testament  Prophecy,"  New  York,  1889,  pp. 
26-28). 

3.  Definition  from  Psychological  Condition  of  the 
Prophet. — Thus  far  we  have  drawn  a  description  of  the 
Old  Testament  prophets  from  the  effect  they  were  in- 
tended to  produce  on  the  Jewish  nation.  Zachary  in  his 
celebrated  hymn  of  thanksgiving  has  well  described  the 
moral  effects  ])roduced  by  the  prophets  on  their  contem- 
poraries (St.  Luke  i.  7G-79):  "And  thou  child  shalt  be 
called  the  prophet  of  the  Highest;  for  thou  shalt  go  be- 
fore the  face  of  tiie  Loi'd  to  prepare  his  ways,  to  give 
knowledge  of  salvation  to  his  peoj)lc,  unto  the  remission  of 


NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  PROPHETS.         91 

their  sins,  through  the  bowels  of  the  mercy  of  our  God,  in 
which  the  Orient  from  on  high  hath  visited  us,  to  en- 
lighten them  that  sit  in  darkness  and  in  the  shadow  of 
death,  to  direct  our  feet  into  the  way  of  peace."  It  is  now 
incumbent  on  us  to  describe  the  Old  Testament  prophets 
according  to  the  physical  condition  in  which  they  received 
the  divine  communications,  referring  either  to  the  future  or 
to  the  present. 

a.  Purely  Intellectual  or  Sensible. — From  what  has 
been  said  thus  far,  it  is  j^lain  that  prophecy  is  a  super- 
natural fact,  i.e. — a  fact  tending,  at  least  indirectly,  to  a 
su])ernatural  end.  But  this  of  itself  does  not  throw  much 
light  on  the  psychological  condition  of  the  prophet  while 
he  is  under  the  divine  inspiration.  St.  Thomas  (ir\  ii'"*"., 
q.  174,  a.  3,  3)  and  Suarez  (IIP.  pars,  q.  30,  a.  4,  disp.  ix., 
sect.  2)  tell  us  that  prophecy  is  either  purely  intellectual 
or  sensible.  In  the  former  case,  the  prophetic  communi- 
cation is  given  directly  to  the  intellect  without  the  inter- 
vention of  any  sensible  image.  This  seems  to  happen  very 
rarely,  and  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures  we  know  of  no  other 
instance  except  that  of  St.  Paul  (II.  Cor.  xii.  2) :  "I  know 
a  man  in  Christ  above  fourteen  years  ago — whether  in  the 
body,  I  know  not,  or  out  of  the  body,  I  know  not — God 
knoweth — such  an  one  rapt  even  to  the  third  heaven." 

b.  Seven  Kinds  of  Sensible  Prophecy. — The  second  man- 
ner of  prophetic  inspiration,  or  that  by  means  of  a  sensi- 
ble medium,  is  subdivided  by  St.  Thomas  into  seven  classes: 
The  first  is  ecstasy  or  spiritual  rapture,  such  as  we  find  in 
St.  Peter  when  he  saw  the  lineii  cloth  filled  with  the 
divers  kinds  of  animals;  the  second  is  vision,  as  we  find  in 
the  case  of  the  prophet  Isaias,  where  he  says :  "  I  saw  the 
Lord  sitting";  the  third  class  is  the  prophetic  dream,  as 
Jacob  had  when  in  his  sleep  he  saw  the  miraculous  ladder 
(Gen.  xxii.  12)  ;  the  fourth  is  the  miraculous  cloud,  such 
as  appeared  to  Moses;  the  fifth  is  the  voice  from  lieaven, 
like  that  which  Abraham  heard  when  about  to  sacrifice 
his  son  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  12);  the  sixth  is  the  parable,  such 


92  INTROBUCTION. 

as  Balaam  received  (Num.  xxiii.  T) ;  the  seventh  is  the 
condition  of  being  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  were 
nearly  all  the  i)rophets.  Tliough  this  division  is  very  in- 
genious, it  is  not  altogetiier  satisfactory.  Tiie  seventh 
class,  e.g.,  seems  to  embrace  all  the  other  six;  the  dis- 
tinction between  vision  and  ecstasy  is  hard  to  draw  for 
one  who  does  not  know  the  difference  by  experience.  Per- 
haps tlie  following  classification  Avill  be  found  more  intel- 
ligible, since  it  reduces  the  seven  kinds  of  sensible  prophecy 
to  three. 

a.  Words. — There  is  in  the  first  place  the  prophetic 
communication  by  means  of  words  (cf.  Vigouroux, "  flannel 
liibliciue,"  t.  i.  pp.  4G1  ff.;  Trochon,  "  Introduction  gene- 
rale,"  p.  xii.).  Not  as  if  there  were  always  question  of 
articulate  language  striking  the  prophet's  bodily  ear,  but 
there  is,  at  least,  an  internal  voice,  or  the  sensation  repre- 
senting certain  articulate  sounds.  ^lany  divine  communi- 
cations l^appened  in  this  manner,  though  in  a  number  of 
instances  (I.  Kings  iii.  4;  Ex.  iii.  4,  etc.)  really  articulate 
sound  seems  to  have  existed. 

/S,  Visions. — The  second  manner  of  sensible  prophetic 
communication  is  the  vision,  instances  of  which  occur  fre- 
quently in  the  prophets,  especially  in  the  case  of  Ezechiel 
(i.  4 ;  ii.  0 ;  viii.  2 ;  x.  1 ;  xxxvii.  I ;  xl.  2 ;  Is.  vi.  2,  etc.).  If  it 
be  asked  in  what  these  visions  consisted,  there  is  a  diversity 
of  opinion.  Some  think  that  in  the  case  of  visions  the 
prophet  was  really  acted  upon  by  external  objects,  i.e., 
God  produced  the  objects  which  the  proi)het  saw  outside 
of  the  prophet.  Others  are  of  opinion  that  in  case  of 
vision  God  produced  the  sensation  only  in  the  prophet's 
interior,  so  that  nothing  external  corresponded  with  the 
]irnphetic  vision.  St.  Jerome  embraces  tliis  second  ojiinion 
(M.  Patrol.  Lat.  t.  xxv.  col.  341),  where  he  speaks  of 
Ezechiel's  well-known  vision  of  the  dry  bones.  "Eduxit 
cum  in  spiritu.  imn  in  corpore,  sed  extra  corpus  "  are  the 
words  of  tlie  lioly  Dodo:-.  In  any  case,  the  visions  of 
tlu'  pi'oplu'fs  were  not  inei'e  lict ions,  l»ut  tlicy  were  really 


NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  PROPHETS.         93 

produced  by  God,  either  interiorly  (directly)  or  by  means 
of  external  objects  (indirectly)  (cf.  Vigouroux,  1.  c,  p. 
462;  Comely,  "  Introduct."  II.  ii.  pp.  291  f.). 

1.  Views  of  Philo,  etc. — Here  the  question  arises  whether 
the  prophets,  when  actually  seeing  the  prophetic  visions  or 
hearing  the  prophetic  words,  were  always  in  a  state  of  un- 
consciousness. Philo  and  the  Alexandrian  school  answer 
in  the  affirmative.  "  The  human  understanding,"  says 
Philo  (Quis  rerum  divin.  har.,  t.  i.  p.  511),  "  leaves  when 
the  divine  spirit  arrives,  and  when  the  latter  leaves  the 
former  returns  to  its  home;  for  the  mortal  must  not  dwell 
with  the  immortal."  The  same  writer  (Do  vita  Mosis,  1.  i. 
t,  ii.  p.  124)  describes  Balaam  as  an  unconscious  instrument 
through  which  God  spoke  to  men.  In  the  writings  of 
Josephus  (Antiq.  IV.  vi.)  Balaam  excuses  himself  before 
Balak  on  a  similar  principle.  Prophecy  is  by  these  writers 
altogether  identified  with  the  pagan  soothsaying.  The 
Montanists  adopted  the  same  view  of  prophecy,  as  we  see 
from  the  writings  of  Tertullian  (Adv.  Marc.  iv.  22) :  "  We 
hold  that  an  ecstasy  of  grace,  i.e.,  unconsciousness,  is  part 
of  the  new  prophecy.  For  man  constituted  in  spirit,  espe- 
cially when  he  sees  the  divine  glory,  or  when  God  speaks 
through  him,  necessarily  loses  his  sensibility,  being  over- 
shadowed by  the  divine  j^ower;  and  about  this  there  is  a 
difference  of  opinion  between  us  and  the  Psychists  [Catho- 
lics]." And  according  to  this  view  of  Philo,  the  pagan 
philosophers,  and  the  Montanists,  the  so-called  ecstasy 
lasted  not  only  Avhile  the  divine  communication  was  made, 
but  also  while  the  prophet  communicated  the  same  to 
man. 

2.  Tins  Theory  Rejected.— The  Fathers  of  the  Church 
are  unanimous  in  combating  this  view  of  the  prophetic 
state.  Miltiadcs  composed  a  whole  book  against  it  (Euse- 
bius,  Hist.  Eccl.  V.  17);  Origen  and  St.  Basil  insist  on 
the  difference  between  the  prophet  and  the  unconscious 
soothsayer;  St.  Jerome  (In  Nahum,  prooem.)  says:  "The 
prophet  does  not  speak  in  ecst.asy,  as  Montanus,  Prisca, 


94  INTROD  UCTION. 

and  Miixilliina  insanely  nuiiiitain,  Init  wliat  he  prophesies 
lie  fully  iiiulerstunds.''  And  again,  the  same  Saint  says 
(lu  Is,  prooem.) :  "  The  prophets  did  not,  as  Montunus 
with  his  insane  women  dreams,  speak  in  ecstasy,  so  as  not 
to  understand  their  own  words,  and  remain  ignorant  while 
instructing  others."  St.  Chrysostom  (Iloni.  xxix.  in  epist. 
ad  Corinth.)  is  still  more  explicit:  "  This  is  the  peculiarity 
of  the  "mantis"  (//avri?),  to  he  beside  himself,  to  sufl'er 
constraint,  to  be  struck,  to  l)c  stretched,  to  be  dragged  like 
a  madman.  The  projdiet,  however,  is  not  so,  but  he  speaks 
everything  with  calm  understanding  and  with  sound  self- 
possession,  and  knowing  what  he  2)roclaims,  so  that  we  can 
distinguish  between  the  mantis  and  the  prophet  even  be- 
fore the  fulfdnient." 

3,  Tlie  Prophels  Pdssivc  in  flieir  ]'isio)is. — At  the  same 
time  the  Fathers  use  very  clear  and  forcil)le  terms  to  show 
that  the  pro])hots  were  passive  under  the  divine  ins2>ira- 
tion,  though  they  make  a  clear  distinction  between  heatheii 
soothsaying  and  ]\Iontanist  ecstasy  on  the  one  side  and 
Hebrew  prophecy  on  the  other.  Thus  the  Fathers  describe 
the  prophets  as  passive  instruments,  as  a  flute  (Athena- 
goras,  Leg.  pro  C'hristianis,  c.  ix. ;  Clement  of  Alex.,  Cohort, 
ad  Gent.  c.  i,),  or  a  lyre  ^Justin  IMartyr,  Cohort,  ad 
Graecos,  c,  viii.;  E])hra?m,  Syr.,  Khythm.  xxix.;  Chrysost,, 
ad  i)opul,  Antioch,,  Ilom,  i.  t.  ii.),  or  a  pen  (St,  Gregory 
the  Great,  Vvmt.  in  Mor,  Job).  Expressions  such  as  these 
(many  of  which  are  collected  by  Dr.  Lee,  Appendix  (i) 
must  be  set  against  the  passages  which  were  directed 
against  the  Montanists,  The  biblical  account  of  the 
individual  i)r()phets  confirms  this  view  of  the  patristic 
writers,  Jonas  and  Kzechiel  even  resist  and  struggle 
against  the  divine  communication,  but  still  they  finally  act 
according  to  their  impulse  from  on  high, 

y.  DUKAMS. — The  third  manner  of  sensible  ]iroi)lietic  com- 
munication is  the  dream;  it  dilfers  from  the  vision,  because 
the  latter  ha])])ens  in  thewakingstate,  while  the  foi-mer  lakes 
place  in  the  sleep.     What  is  told  us  of  Nathan  (11.  Kings 


NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  TUE  PROPHETS.         95 

vii.  4)  shows  that  the  vision  may  be  had  during  the  night- 
time. Instances  of  divine  comnauiication  in  tlie  dream 
occur  repeatedly  in  the  OKI  Testament  (Gen.  xx.  3-G ; 
xxviii.  12-14;  I.  Kings  xxviii.  G;  Joel  ii.  28;  Dan.  ii.;  Job 
xxxiii.  14-16).  Even  the  gift  of  interj)reting  dreams  is  rep- 
resented as  a  special  favor  of  God,  whicii  the  false  2)roph- 
ets  pretended  at  times  to  possess  (Jer.  xxiii.  25,  27,  28). 
Jt  is  surprising  how  any  one  can  confound  the  vision  with 
the  dream  as  Smith  (Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  see  Prophet) 
seems  to  do. 

6.  Ecstasy  not  Excluded. — By  classifying  the  sensible 
prophetic  communication  as  hearing,  seeing,  and  dreaming, 
we  do  not  wish  to  exclude  the  ecstatic  state  from  the  pos- 
sible conditions  in  which  the  prophet  nniy  find  himself  at 
the  time  he  receives  the  divine  communication.  Such  a 
state  seems  to  be  described  in  Job  (iv.  13-16;  xxxiii,  15), 
and  more  i)lainly  in  the  Book  of  Daniel.  In  the  case  of 
Daniel  we  find  first  a  deep  sleep  (viii.  18;  x.  9)  accom- 
jianied  by  terror  (viii.  17;  x.  8).  Next,  he  is  raised  up 
(viii.  18)  on  his  hands  and  knees,  and  then  on  his  feet 
(x.  10,  11).  He  then  receives  the  divine  revelation  (viii. 
19;  X.  12),  after  which  he  falls  to  the  ground  in  a  swoon 
(x.  15,  17);  he  is  faint,  sick,  and  astonished  (viii.  27;  cf. 
Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,"  see  Prophet).  We  may 
compare  with  this  descrii^tion  the  state  of  the  apostles  at 
the  transfiguration,  of  St.  Peter  before  the  divine  commis- 
sion to  receive  the  Gentiles  iiito  the  Church  (Acts  x.  10; 
xi.  5),  of  St.  Paul  when  he  was  commanded  to  devote  him- 
self to  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  (Acts  xxii.  17),  and 
again  when  he  was  caught  \\\i  into  the  third  heaven  (II. 
Cor.  xii.  1) ;  finally  of  St.  John  when  he  received  his  mes- 
sage for  the  seven  churches  (Apoc.  i.  10).  But  while  we 
fully  grant  the  possibility  that  a  prophet  may  be  in  such  a 
supernatural  state  when  he  receives  his  message,  we  at  the 
same  time  maintain  that  the  message  itself  is  communi- 
cated to  him  as  a  vision,  or  as  an  audible  voice,  or  as  a 
dream,  unless  it  be  purely  intellectual. 


90  IJSTUODUVTION. 

6.  Phopiietic  Ckktaixty. — It  may  be  asked:  How  did 
the  i)ro])liets  know  that  what  tlieysaw  or  heard  or  dreamed 
was  a  divine  message,  and  not  an  ilhision  of  the  evil  spirit 
or  a  mere  halhicination  ?  Have  not  even  the  most  devout 
and  iijiriglit  persons  been  thus  dehided  ?  We  understand 
that  tlie  (juestion  is  not  answered  by  tlie  fact  tliat  the  same 
ditVu^ulty  exists  in  every  divine  inspiration,  aiid  especially 
in  the  inspiration,  properly  so  called,  under  which  the 
canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament  were 
written.  But  without  answering  the  question  fully,  the 
parallel  case  at  least  illustrates  what  nuiy  have  hu])2)ened 
in  case  of  the  prophetic  communications.  A  moral  cer- 
tainty tliat  our  inspiration  is  good,  that  our  motive  is 
supernatural,  is  a  sufficient  reason  for  performing  the 
action  in  question  and  for  following  the  inspiration.  Add 
to  this  the  supernatural  certainty  which  the  divine  light 
of  prophecy  infuses  into  the  mind  of  the  pro})het,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  powerful  impulse  given  to  liis  will  to 
announce  his  divine  message,  and  the  earnest  conviction 
with  which  the  prophets  speak  is  sufficiently  explained. 
In  case  the  prophet  were  endowed  Avith  the  gift  of  work- 
ing miracles  in  confirnuition  of  his  mission,  he  might  even 
rely  on  this  extrinsic  motive  for  the  truth  of  his  ])rophetic 
announcements. 

4.  Rationalistic  Theories.— After  establishing  our 
own  position  regarding  the  psychological  condition  of  the 
prophet  at  the  time  of  his  receiving  tlie  divine  communica- 
tion, we  nuiy  cast  a  glance  at  the  ex})lanations  that  some 
of  our  opponents  give  of  this  same  condition.  The  theories 
of  Ewald,  Reville,  Kuenen,  and,  in  short,  of  all  those  who 
reduce  the  pro})hetic  state  to  a  merely  natural  phenonu'uon, 
need  not  be  considered.  For  it  appears  froju  the  analysis 
of  the  prophetic  argument  that  the  prophetic  light  sur- 
passes all  natural  Ciiuses,  and  can  therefore  proceed  from 
God  alone,  either  mediately  or  immediately.  "Whatever 
moral  power  these  writers  nuiy  ascribe  to  the  }»roj)hets, 
however  they    may   laud   their  creation   of  ethical  mono- 


NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  PROrUETS.         97 

theism,  they  explain  all  this  as  a- purely  natural  2)rocess, 
founded  on  the  natural  endowment  of  the  prophets,  and 
proving  nothing  beyond  a  great  power  of  intellect  and  will. 
At  the  same  time,  these  writers  must  shut  their  eyes  to 
all  the  supernatural  phenomena  of  prediction  and  fulfil- 
ment which  are  related  in  the  Bible  history.  This  posi- 
tion has  been  already  sufficiently  considered  in  a  previous 
chapter. 

a.  Briggs'  Theory. — Here  we  must  draw  attention  to  the 
position  of  a  few  Christian  writers  who  fully  admit  that 
the  prophetic  phenomenon  is  supernatural,  but  do  not  seem 
to  explain  it  satisfactorily,  or  at  least  they  allow  their  ex- 
l)lanations  to  be  influenced  by  the  claims  of  the  rationalists. 
Prof.  Briggs  (Messianic  Prophecy,New  York,  188G,  p^).  2-2"^) 
gives  the  following  exposition  of  our  question.  1.  "  Proph- 
ecy as  a  religious  instruction  claims  to  come  from  God 
and  to  possess  divine  authority.  The  prophet  is  an  officer 
of  the  Deity,  with  a  commission  from  the  God  he  serves." 
It  appears  from  the  whole  text  that  this  description  is 
intended  to  apply  to  any  prophet,  whether  true  or  false, 
whether  serving  the  true  God  or  an  idol.  Here  the  ration- 
alistic spirit  which  places  the  pagan  religions  of  antiquity 
on  a  level  with  the  revealed  religion,  and  the  soothsayers  of 
paganism  on  a  level  with  the  prophets  of  Jehovah,  has 
moved  Dr.  Briggs  to  call  pagan  soothsaying  and  Hebrew 
prophecy  by  the  same  name.  He  might  as  well  give  the 
same  generic  definition  of  gold  and  brass,  of  the  picture  and 
the  object, 

2.  Then  Dr.  Briggs  goes  on  to  say  that  "there  are  three 
phases  of  prophecy  which  are  common  to  the  religions  of 
the  world — the  dream,  the  vision,  and  the  enlightened 
spiritual  discernment."  Here  again  the  three  kinds  of 
prophecy  which  we  have  already  described  are  placed  on 
the  same  level  with  their  counterfeits.  That  the  Doctor 
actually  does  this  is  plain  from  what  he  says  in  the  follow- 
ing paragraph :  "  The  dream  is  the  simplest  phase  of  proph- 
ecy.   It  may  arise  from  an  abnormal  condition  of  the  body 


98  INTRODUCTION. 

or  from  tlie  stimulation  of  a  higher  power.  It  may  be 
genuine  projjliecy  or  s])urious  propliecy.  There  is  need  of 
discriminating  tests."  In  a  similar  manner  does  the  writer 
sjjeak  about  his  second  phase  of  2)ro])hecy,  the  vision :  "  The 
most  common  phase  of  propliecy  is  the  ecstatic  state.  This 
nuiy  be  either  mitural,  as  in  epileptics  and  persons  who 
through  nervous  derangement  have  an  abnormal  intellectual 
and  emotional  develo})ment,  or  artificial,  where  the  nervous 
organization  is  excited  by  external  stimuhmts,  or  the  agency 
of  evil  spirits,  or  the  divine  Spirit."  Finally,  even  the  third 
phase  of  prophecy  which  Dr.  liriggs  acknowledges  is  of  a 
very  equivocal  nature.  ''There  is  also  a  higher  order  of 
prophets,  who  through  retirement  and  contemplation  of  the 
sacred  mysteries  of  religion  have  been  s])iritual]y  enlightened 
to  discern  truths  of  a  higher  order  tlian  their  fellows,  and  to 
exi)erience  emotions  of  a  deeper  and  moi'e  absoi'biug  inten- 
sity. They  have  wondrous  powers  of  insight  and  forecast. 
They  read  and  interpret  character  and  affairs.  They  are 
the  masters  of  the  past  and  the  present,  and  they  ])oint  the 
way  confidently  into  the  future.  Such  prophets  of  a  higher 
grade  exist  among  the  various  religions  of  the  world."  In 
all  the  three  phases  of  prophecy,  therefore,  Dr.  Briggs 
confounds  the  divinely  inspired  knowledge  of  the  future 
with  pagan  divination  and  with  natural  penetration  of  genius. 
3.  In  the  third  place.  Dr.  Briggs  states  the  Montanistic 
view  and  the  naturalistic  theory  of  prophecy.  Tiie  former 
is  by  no  means  refuted  by  him,  but  merely  described  aiid 
develo})ed.  In  the  course  of  development  we  meet  the 
strange  statement:  "  The  most  primitive  form  of  prophecy 
among  the  Hebrews  was  doubtless  of  the  lowest  phases — 
external  revelations  through  dreams  or  in  ecstatic  vision" 
(p.  14).  As  if  in  the  divine  revelations  there  were  a  de- 
velopment from  the  less  to  the  more  perfect  way  of  commu- 
nicating with  man,  or  as  if  man  liimself  liad  been  in  the 
beginning  much  less  developed  in  liis  spiritual  faculties  than 
he  was  at  a  later  period.     The  biblical  account  of  man's 


NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  PROPHETS.         99 

condition  in  the  garden  of  Eden- is  here,  at  least  implicitly, 
called  in  question. 

4.  Finally,  the  Doctor  gives  his  description  of  the  He- 
brew prophet.  "  The  prophet  of  Jahveli  is  personally  called 
and  endowed  by  Jaliveh  with  the  prophetic  spirit.  He 
speaks  in  the  name  of  Jahveh  and  in  his  name  alone.  He 
is  one  of  a  series  of  prophets  who  guide  in  the  develoi)ment 
of  the  Hebrew  religion.  He  absorbs  and  reproduces  pre- 
vious prophecy.  He  transmits  pro2)hecy  with  confidence 
to  his  successors.  Hebrew  prophecy  is  an  organism  of 
redemption."  All  this  does  not  yet  touch  the  point  we 
are  considering  just  now.  It  merely  describes  or  defines 
the  Hebrew  i)rophet  by  means  of  the  effect  he  produces. 
But  it  is  interesting  as  fitting  in  closely  with  the  following 
description  of  the  prophetic  call  and  endowment :  "  Hebrew 
prophecy  originates  in  a  personal  revelation  of  God  to  man 
in  theophany.  It  is  communicated  to  successive  prophets 
by  the  influence  of  the  spirit  of  God.  The  divine  Spirit 
assures  the  prophet  of  his  possession  of  the  truth  of  God 
and  of  his  commission  to  declare  it;  endows  him  with  the 
gifts  and  spiritual  energy  to  proclaim  it  without  fear  or 
favor,  and  despite  every  obstacle;  guides  him  in  the  form 
of  its  delivery,  and  directs  him  to  give  it  its  appropriate 
place  in  the  prophetic  system."  The  point  in  which  this 
description  agrees  with  the  pi'eceding  concerns  the  organic 
connection  in  which  every  Hebrew  prophet  is  supposed  to 
stand  with  his  predecessors  and  his  successors— a  connection 
that  can  by  no  means  claim  the  undisputed  certainty  of  a 
fact.  This  will  appear  clearly  where  we  shall  treat  of  the 
prophetic  order  and  the  schools  of  the  proj)hets.  What  the 
author  requires  for  the  prophetic  call  and  endowment 
besides  this  organic  connection  is  so  vague  that  it  is  hardly 
worth  considering.  Of  course,  there  is  the  light  for  the 
intellect  and  the  strength  for  the  will;  but  then  these  are 
gifts  that  are  bestowed  in  common  insjiiration  too,  so  that 
according  to  this  view  the  prophet  hardly  differs  from  the 
common  canonical  writer. 


1 00  INTRO  D  UCriON. 

h.  Riehm's  Theory. — Eieliin's  explanation  of  i)r(ipliecy, 
too,  deserves  ii  few  moments'  reflection  (Messianic  Proph- 
ecy, transl.  by  Muirhead,  Edinburgh,  1891,  pp.  1-101). 
1.  First,  then,  Riehni  i)rotests:  "  AVe  also  are  persuaded  that 
an  historical  understanding  of  Old  Testament  prophecy  is 
impossible  ajiart  from  a  recognition  of  the  reality  of  the 
divine  revelations  imparted  to  the  prophets  "  (p.  14).  The 
supernatural  cliaracter  of  prophecy  is  therefore  acknowl- 
edged by  the  author.  What  is  meant  by  the  historical  un- 
derstanding of  prophecy  is  well  illustrated  by  Davidson  in 
the  Introduction  to  Riehm's  "Messianic  Prophecies"  (p.  12): 
"  lie  who  in  a  temple  that  is  an  acknowledged  architectural 
masterpiece  does  not  survey  the  structure  as  a  whole  may 
easily  look  for  more  beauty  and  perfection  of  form  in  the 
details  than  they  by  themselves  really  possess.  The  spec- 
tator, however,  who  admires  the  whole  building  need  have 
1)0  scruple  in  acknowledging  tho  imperfections,  in  their 
isolated  character,  of  details  which  make  the  temple  great 
and  splendid  only  by  their  co-ordination  and  harmonious 
articulation.  One  who  in  like  manner  has  gained  an  in- 
sight into  and  a  view  of  the  wliole  Old  Testament  economy, 
and  has,  as  a  consequence,  attained  a  full  and  clear  convic- 
tion that  the  Old  Covenant,  as  a  whole,  has  been  planned 
with  a  view  to  a  future  fulfilment  in  the  New,  and  that  the 
whole  trend  of  religious  development  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  towards  Christianity,  will,  in  the  exegesis  of  all 
})articular  Messianic  i)assages,  without  scruple  recognize 
only  that  measure  of  knowledge  of  God's  saving  purpose 
whicli,  when  examined  according  to  the  rules  of  a  strictly 
historical  method  of  exegesis,  they  are  found  really  to  con- 
tain." And  previously  the  same  author  had  defined  the 
historical  sense  of  prophecy  as  "  the  purport  of  individual 
utterances  considered  as  members  of  the  entire  developing 
body  of  Old  Testament  pro})hecy  "  (p.  7).  A  few  lines 
further  on,  we  read:  "A  definition  of  the  contents  of  a 
prophecy  can  include  only  the  sense — all)eit  the  full  sense 
— in  which  at  the  time  of  its  utterance  the  ])roi)liecy  could 


NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  PROPHETS.       101 

be  uiidorstood,  and  was  necessarily  understood.  For  what 
can  be  recognized  only  in  the  time  of  fulfilment  is  precisely 
what  is  not  contained  in  the  prophecy  itself." 

2.  After  thus  professing  his  belief  in  the  supernatural 
character  of  jirophecy,  Riehni  goes  on  to  explain  God's  way 
of  communicating  his  revelation  to  the  prophets.  "  To 
assume,"  he  says  (p.  58),  "  that  revelations  were  made  to 
the  prophets  in  a  way  that  condemned  their  previous  ap- 
2)rehensions  of  truth  to  absolute  disuse  involves  surely  an 
unworthy  conception  of  God.  .  .  .  lie  [God]  rather  makes 
it  his  function  to  develop  the  germs  tliat  lie  concealed  in 
existing  apprehensions,  to  bring  them  by  constant  impulse 
to  the  2)oint  at  wliich  they  shall  discover  their  hidden 
treasures,  and  cause  the  new  truth  organically  to  blossom 
forth  from  them  under  the  reciprocal  action  of  those  in- 
fluences which  by  the  laAvs  of  their  own  life-force  they  exert 
upon  one  another  in  the  natural  progress  of  their  develoj)- 
nient.  .  .  .  The  question  as  to  the  origin  of  a  Messianic 
prophecy  is  answered  in  a  truly  satisfactory  way  only  when 
it  is  shown  how  that  origin  has  been  psychologically 
mediated,  or  more  jiarticularly,  what  roots  and  germs  of  it 
were  contained  in  the  previous  consciousness  of  the  prophet, 
and  in  what  way  it  was  organically  developed  from  them." 
This  principle  is  illustrated  by  a  fact  of  animal  life.  As  no 
nourishment  can  be  taken  into  the  animal  system  that  has 
not  previously  an  organic  formation,  so  in  the  intellectual 
life  no  truth  can  be  digested,  as  it  were,  that  has  not 
previously  conformed  to  the  preliminary  conditions  of  its 
natural  development  in  the  faculty. 

3.  If  it  be  asked  in  the  third  place  which  are  the  ger- 
minal ideas  from  which  the  Messianic  prophecies  have  been 
organically  developed.  Dr.  Riehm  answers  (p.  GG) :  "  There 
are  three  ideas  which,  above  others,  demand  our  special  at- 
tention: the  idea  of  the  Covenant,  the  immediately  related 
idea  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  and,  as  the  germ  of  the  Mes- 
sianic prophecy  in  the  narrower  sense,  the  idea,  not  indeed, 
Mosaic,  yet  still  pre-prophetic,  of  the  theocratic  kingship." 


102  INTRODUCriON. 

The  author  tlicn  shows  how  the  prophecies  may  have  been 
(leveh)ped  out  of  these  three  primary  ideas.  As  to  the  idea 
of  the  Covenant,  the  Messianic  ])r()phecy  in  the  wider  sense 
resulted,  firstly,  from  the  contradiction  between  idea  and 
reality  consequent  upon  Israel's  various  disloyalties,  and 
secondly,  from  the  contradiction  between  idea  and  reality 
inherent  in  the  entire  character  of  tlie  Old  Covenant  and  its 
theocracy  (p.  78).  The  same  two  contradictions  between 
idea  and  reality  would  tend  to  evolve  the  Messianic  proph- 
ecy out  of  the  idea  of  the  kingdom  of  God  (i)p.  90,  91). 
And  if  we  regard  the  theocratic  kingship,  we  find  that  the 
king  is  on  the  one  hand  the  representative  of  the  invisible 
and  Divine  King,  and  on  the  other  he  is  also  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  people;  hence  he  represents  not  merely  the 
ideal  prophet  and  judge,  but  also  tlie  ideal  priest.  And 
since  reality  was  lagging  far  behind  the  idea,  it  is  but 
natural  that  the  Messianic  prophecy  in  its  narrower  sense 
should  evolve  out  of  the  theocratic  kingship  (p.  117  If.). 

4.  It  logically  follows  that  the  single  Old  Testament 
prophecies  according  to  Kiehm's  view  must  be  strictly 
adapted  to  the  times  in  which  they  originated.  This  the 
autiior  shows,  first,  from  the  destination  of  the  prophecies 
for  their  respective  present;  secondly,  from  the  limits  of 
the  prophetic  prospect.  Every  prophet  had  a  definite 
])rophetic  horizon  beyond  which  his  ideas  could  not  carry 
him.  Thirdly,  from  the  fact  that  the  circumstances  of  the 
relative  times  had  to  unfold  the  germs  of  the  Messianic  ap- 
prehension; and  finally,  from  the  general  iiarallelism  be- 
tween the  course  of  history  of  the  kingdom  of  God  and  the 
development  of  the  Messianic  prophecy  (Kichm,  1,  c, 
part  ii.,  pp.  11>4-21T). 

5.  In  the  tliird  part  of  his  book  (pp.  21T-3'24)  Riehm 
treats  of  the  relation  between  Old  Testament  prophecy  and 
New  Testament  fulfilment.  He  first  reminds  us  again  of 
his  distinction  between  the  contents  of  i)roj)hecy,  i.e,  the 
sense  in  Avhicli  tiie  jirophets  understood  their  utterances, 
and  its  ultimate  reference  to  fulfilment  through  Christ  (p. 


NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  PROPHETS.       lOB 

219).  The  author  regards  the  attempt  to  piece  together  in 
one  complete  picture  all  the  individual  features  of  Messianic 
prophecy,  and  to  find  in  Christ  and  his  kingdom  the  fulfil- 
ment of  every  individual  feature,  as  unwarrantable  and 
impracticable  (p.  221).  The  single  prophecies  are  not  the 
fragments  of  a  picture,  but  rather  the  different  forms  of  a 
living  organism,  which  advances  through  a  series  of  phases 
of  development.  As  individual  leaves  fall  from  the  plant 
and  are  replaced  by  new  ones,  and  as  in  the  development  of 
brute-organism  every  organ  assumes  just  the  form  in  whicli 
at  that  particular  state  of  development  it  can  best  fulfil  its 
intended  purpose,  so  it  is  with  the  Messianic  proi^hecies. 
The  importance  of  individual  prophecies  is  limited  to  the 
time  during  which  the  circumstances  that  evoked  them 
continue,  and  during  which  the  historical  stage  of  devehip- 
ment  lasts  to  whicli  the  prophecy  belongs.  When  the  his- 
torical circumstances  were  substantially  altered,  most  ele- 
ments of  the  prophecy  had  found  their  jiroper  times- 
adapted  fulfilment,  and  so  far  as  this  was  not  the  case,  they 
could  never  be  fulfilled  in  the  sense  whicli  contemporaries 
gave  to  the  prophecy.  Hence,  as  soon  as  the  circumstances 
have  substantially  altered,  something  new  takes  the  place 
of  the  old  that  has  been  outlived  and  has  lost  its  signifi- 
cance and  effective  force.  Thus  a  very  considerable  por- 
tion of  Messianic  prophecy  remains  outside  the  S2)here  of 
New  Testament  fulfilment,  either  because  it  has  found 
already  its  times-adapted  fulfilment  before  the  fulness  of 
time,  or  through  its  remaining  altogether  unfulfilled. 

c.  Verdict  on  Riehm's  Theory.— <^r.  It  is  based  on  a 
False  Principle. — Regarding  Riehm's  theory  we  must 
say  that  it  appears  to  us  altogether  unsatisfactory  and  even 
inconsistent.  For  the  author  claims  on  the  one  hand  that 
God's  intervention  in  prophecy  is  absolutely  necessary,  and 
on  the  other  he  establishes  a  gradual  development  of  the 
prophetic  ideas,  similar  to  the  gradual  process  in  the  vege- 
table and  the  animal  life.  Of  course,  he  admits  the  lattei", 
because  according  to  him  God  could  not  reveal  any  truth 


104  INT  ROD  UCTION. 

to  mail  tliat  is  not  already  ooiitaiiied  in  what  man  knows 
beforehand.  Now  tliis  position  is  in  the  first  place  en- 
tirely gratuitous.  The  analogy  from  the  lower  life  j)roves 
only  that  our  intellectual  faculty  cannot  grasp  anything 
that  is  not  essentially  related  to  it;  but  all  truth  is  essen- 
tially related  to  the  intellect,  as  philosophers  prove.  As  it 
stands,  the  argument  would  prove  that  no  animal  can 
assimilate  any  food  that  is  not  already  contained  in  its 
stomach, — cannot,  in  other  words,  take  any  fresh  nourish- 
ment. 

/i.  Its  Assumptioxs  are  Gratuitous. — And  when  we 
come  to  examine  the  single  stages  of  Kiehm's  theory,  its 
entire  gratuitousness  and  sophistry  become  evident.  For, 
to  begin  with  the  starting-point  of  the  theory,  we  are  asked 
to  assume  the  three  ideas  of  the  Covenant,  the  Kingdom 
of  God,  and  the  Theocratic  Kingdom  Now  these  three 
ideas  are  either  mere  natural  developments  of  previous 
concepts,  in  which  case  the  Avhole  superstructure  is  a 
merely  natural  system  of  religion,  or  they  are  directly  re- 
vealed by  God.  But  if  this  latter  explanation  be  given, 
Kiehm's  own  theory  of  the  intellectual  development  of  relig- 
ious ideas  falls  to  the  ground. 

y.  The  Process  of  Development  is  merely  Natu- 
ral.— In  the  next  place,  a  word  may  be  said  about  the 
development  of  the  prophetic  concepts  out  of  the  previ- 
ous germinal  ideas.  As  the  process  is  explained,  it  ex- 
cludes anytiiing  we  might  be  apt  to  call  a  supernatural 
divine  assistance.  For  we  find  similar  processes  in  the 
development  of  almost  every  scientific  or  ethical  idea.  The 
gradual  perfection  in  the  application  of  steam  and  elec- 
tricity which  has  now  produced  the  transatlantic  steamer 
aiul  th.e  telograpliic  cal)le  might  thus  be  represented  as  a 
prophetic  process,  j)refiguring  our  present  state  of  mechan- 
ical perfection.  In  the  same  manner  the  revolutionary 
ideas  developed  during  the  course  of  the  seventeentli 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  culminating  in  the  nnirder  of 
Louis  X\'I.  with  its  concomitant  horrors,  might  be  called 


NAME  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  PROPHETS.       105 

prophecies  of  the  French  Revohition.  For  as  the  horrors 
perpetrated  by  the  revokitioiiists  far  outran  the  principles 
laid  down  by  the  revolutionary  philosophy,  so  has,  accord- 
ing to  Rielini,  the  Christian  fulfilment  surpassed  the  pro- 
jihetic  predictions  of  the  Messias. 

6.  The  Definiteness  of  the  Prophecies  is  not  ex- 
plained.— Then  it  must  be  noted  that  the  historical 
events  which,  according  to  Riehm's  theory,  developed  the 
prophetic  germs  into  fuller  growth  are  by  no  means  suffi- 
cient to  account  for  the  definite  Messianic  predictions 
which  they  produced.  Take,  for  instance,  the  jirophecy  of 
Isaias  vii.  1-14:  the  desire  of  King  Achaz  to  conclude  an 
alliance  with  Assyria  is  the  occasion  of  Isaias'  appeal  to 
the  king  to  place  his  confidence  in  the  God  of  Israel. 
Achaz's  rejection  of  the  divine  alliance  and  his  preference 
for  Assyrian  help  sufficiently  account  for  the  nnfavorahle 
sign  that  the  prophet  announces  to  the  house  of  David : 
the  crown  and  the  glory  of  the  house  of  David,  the  Messias, 
shall  be  reduced  to  the  food  of  the  poor,  shall  eat  butter 
and  honey,  and  the  king  of  Assyria,  who  is  preferred 
before  God  Almiglity,  shall  become  the  instrument  of 
Juda's  scourge.  Thus  far  the  predictions  correspond 
exactly  with  the  historic  occasion  on  which  they  were  pro- 
nounced, though  mere  human  wisdom  could  liave  by  no 
means  evolved  them  out  of  the  previous  concepts  of  Cove- 
nant and  Theocratic  Kingdom,  But  then,  where  was  the 
need  of  predicting  precisely  on  this  occasion  that  a  virgin 
should  conceive  and  bear  a  son,  and  that  the  son's  name 
was  to  be  Emmanuel  ?  What  is  true  in  the  case  of  this 
particular  prophecy  applies  to  all  the  other  prophecies, 
from  the  victory  predicted  for  the  seed  of  the  woman  even 
to  the  description  of  the  Messias'  vicarious  suffering  as 
contained  in  the  prophet  Isaias. 

e.  The  Idea  of  Fulfilment  is  destroyed. — Finally, 
Riehm's  view  about  the  fulfilment  of  the  Messianic  proph- 
ecies is  even  less  satisfactory  than  his  opinion  concerning 
their  origin  and  development.     It  may  be  all  very  well  to 


1 06  IN  TROD  UCTION. 

omit  ill  a  steani-cngine  all  suijerfluous  wheels  and  screws, 
though  they  have  heeii  present  at  some  past  period  when 
the  machine  was  not  yet  fully  developed;  but,  surely,  no 
one  will  or  can  maintain  that  the  various  stages  of  the 
machine's  growth  were  real  prophecies  of  what  we  see  at 
present.  If  Kichm  perseveres  in  the  system  which  he  now 
holds  about  the  Christian  fulfilment  of  Messianic  prophecy, 
he  must  either  cease  to  speak  about  prophecy  in  connection 
with  this  subject,  or  he  must  change  his  definition  of 
prophecy.  Delitzsch's  remark,  therefore,  that  Kiehm  does 
not  do  justice  to  the  literal  meaning  of  the  JMessianic  })re- 
dictions  must  be  understood  in  this  sense:  that  Kiehm 
abandons  such  a  meaning  entirely  with  regard  to  the  gi*eat 
bulk  of  prophetic  writings.  It  may  be  a  depressing  obser- 
vation, but  it  is  true,  nevertheless,  that  Judaism  has  a 
strong  su])p()rt  in  such  writers  as  Riehni.  AVhy  should  a 
son  of  Abraham  leave  his  particular  set  of  views  and  opin- 
ions, naturally  developed  out  of  the  Old  Testament  Messi- 
anic ideas,  in  order  to  adopt  a  set  of  religious  ideas  and 
opinions  that  have  grown  from  the  same  root  in  another 
portion  of  the  world,  or  in  another  school  of  religions 
teachers  ?  The  Jew,  too,  may  point  to  that  part  of  fulfilled 
prophecy  which  found  its  completion  before  the  fulness  of 
time;  the  Jew  may  claim  that  the  Messianic  prophecies 
not  yet  fulfilled  were  never  intended  to  find  their  fulfil- 
ment, but  were  like  the  numberless  leaves  that  fall  from 
the  jdant  as  soon  as  they  have  attained  their  special  end. 
Hurely  every  Christian  as  such,  however  he  may  under- 
stand the  relation  of  the  divine  to  the  human  in  the  person 
of  Jesus,  must  recognize  in  him  the  unmistakable  end  of 
Old  Testament  development,  and  in  Christianity  the  infal- 
liltle  c()m})letion  of  Israel's  religion. 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  107 


CHAPTEK   III. 
THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE. 

1.  The  Exercise  of  the  Prophetic  Office  was  Extra- 
ordinary.— It  follows  from  the  condition  of  the  prophet 
at  the  time  he  receives  the  divine  message  that  the  exercise 
of  his  office  is  not  an  ordinary  or  common  action.  "  The 
prophetic  light,"  says  St.  Thomas  (Summa,  11''.  \x^^.,  q.  171 
a.  2),  "is  not  in  the  intellect  after  the  manner  of  a  per- 
manent form,  .  .  .  but  as  a  transient  passion  or  imj^ression." 
And  St.  Jerome  says  (In  Ezech.  xxxv.  1.  M.  25,  349):  "If 
the  word  of  God  were  always  in  the  prophets  and  had 
a  permanent  dwelling  in  their  breast,  Ezechiel  wonld  not 
say  so  often :  And  the  word  of  the  Lord  came  to  me."  In 
point  of  fact,  we  repeatedly  find  the  prophets  praying  for 
the  divine  light  of  prophecy,  and  at  times  they  are  even 
commanded  to  pray  with  this  intention  (I.  Kings  viii.  8; 
Jer.  xxxii.  16;  xlii.  4;  Dan.  ii.  17  ff.;  ix.  3  ff.;  Jer.  xxxii. 
2f.). 

2.  The  Call  to  the  Prophetic  Office  was  Extra- 
ordinary.— If  we  consider  the  way  in  which  the  prophets 
were  called,  their  office  mnst  again  be  called  extraor- 
dinary. For  it  was  God  himself  who  called  the  in- 
dividual prophets  (cf.  I.  Kings  iii.  1;  Is.  vi.;  Jer.  i.)  and 
conferred  on  them  the  prophetic  gift  by  an  internal  and 
supernatural  process.  The  prophetic  office  was  not,  like 
the  office  of  king  or  priest,  annexed  to  a  certain  tribe  or 
family  or  class  of  persons.  Men  and  women  of  every  age, 
of  every  condition  of  life,  were  fit  subjects  for  the  prophetic 
office.  The  boy  Samuel  was  a  Levite;  Eliseus,  a  husband- 
man of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  was  advanced  in  age  at  the 


1 08  INrilOD  UCTION. 

time  of  liis  i)roi)lit'ti(;  oiill;  Isaias  is  by  many  believed  to 
liave  belonged  to  the  royal  family;  Amos  was  a  shepherd 
of  the  tribe  of  Juda;  Jeremias  and  Ezechiel  were  priests; 
Debbora  Avas  a  prophetess  at  the  time  of  the  Judges,  and 
King  Josias  sought  the  will  of  God  from  the  projdietess 
llolda.  Kot  even  a  definite  preparation  was  required  for  the 
prophetic  office,  though  we  believe  that  it  was  commonly 
conferred  on  the  jiious  and  faithful  observers  of  the  law. 
No  external  rite  initiated  the  prophets  into  their  high 
office;  for  what  avo  read  of  Elias  aiul  Eliseus  (III.  Kings 
xix.  IG)  must  be  regarded  as  an  exceptional  case,  and  Isaias 
(Ixi.  1)  speaks  of  an  internal  unction  of  the  Sj)irit. 

a.  The  Prophetic  Order  and  the  Prophetic  Gift  are  not 
Convertible  Terms. — The  opinion  of  recent  biblical  scholars 
that  there  existed  regular  schools  of  pi'ophets  seems  at  first 
sight  to  contradict  our  present  jiosition  regarding  the  num- 
ner  of  the  prophetic  call.  But  it  must  be  observed,  in  the 
first  place,  that  even  if  we  grant  all  that  is  said  about  the 
schools  of  prophets,  our  own  thesis  remains  intact.  For  it 
is  generally  granted  that  the  iirojihetic  order  aiid  the  pro- 
phetic gift  are  not  convertible  terms.  The  members  of  the 
schools  might  belong  to  the  prophetic  order,  but  they  had 
not  on  that  account  the  sujiernatural  prophetic  gift;  and, 
on  tlie  other  hand,  there  might  be  persons  endowed  with 
the  })rophetic  gift  who  did  not  belong  to  the  order  or  to  the 
school  of  the  prophets.  The  prophetic  gift  which  consti- 
tuted the  pr()])het  in  the  strict  acceptation  of  the  term,  as 
we  take  it  here,  was  always  conferred  by  (lod  himself.  The 
•jjrophetic  gift  may  be  compared  with  the  gift  of  ecstasy  or 
the  prayer  of  (piiet;  jH-rsons  may  l)elong  to  commu7iities  in 
which  this  gift  is  often  fouiul,  without  possessing  it;  and 
again,  ecstasy  and  the  highest  form  of  prayer  may  exist 
outside  of  religious  communities. 

h.  Prophetic  Schools.— But  the  opinion  itself  that  there 
existed  regular  ])i-ophctic  schools  deserves  a  moment's  atten- 
tion. All  we  know  for  certain  is  that  at  the  timeof  Samuel,  of 
Klias  and   Eliseus  many  prophets   gathered  at  Kamatha, 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  109 

Bethel,  Gilgal,  Jericho,  and  near  the  Jordan  (I.  Kings  x.  5; 
xix.  20;  IV.  Kings,  ii.  3,  5;  iv.  38)  around  a  more  renowned 
prophet  (Samuel,  Elias,  Eliseus),  whom  they  recognized  as 
their  superior  (I.  Kings  xix.  20;  IV.  Kings,  vi.  1),  in  order 
to  lead  a  common  life  (IV.  Kings,  iv.  38  if.)  and  give  joint 
praise  to  God  (I.  Kings  xix.  20).  Then  again  the  prophet 
Amos  mentions  the  sons  of  the  prophets  (Am.  vii.  14).  And 
St.  Jerome  (Ad  Rustic,  ep.  125,  7;  cf.  ad  Paulin.  ep.  58,  5; 
ad  Eustoch.  ep.  22, 21;  M.  22, 107G;  583;  408)  writes:  " The 
sons  of  the  prophets  of  whom  we  read  are  the  monks  of 
the  Old  Testament,  who  built  themselves  huts  along  the 
Jordan,  and  having  left  the  turmoil  of  the  cities,  lived  on 
barley  and  wild  herbs.'' 

a.  Reasons  for  their  Existence. — But  not  content 
with  these  facts,  the  modern  investigators  have  devised 
regular  systems  of  schools  to  which  the  jirophets  are  said  to 
have  belonged.  The  reasons  fortius  theory  may  be  reduced 
to  the  following:  1.  Abarbanel  writes:  "These  [the  sons 
of  the  prophets]  are  the  disciples  who  prepare  themselves 
for  prophesying,  and  they  are  set  apart  and  as  JSTazarencs 
consecrated  for  the  divine  service."  2.  The  sons  of  the 
prophetsare  said  to  sit  before  a  more  renowned  prophets  (IV. 
Kings  iv.  38;  vi.  1),  as  the  pupils  were  wont  to  sit  around 
their  master  (cf.  Dillmann,  Schenkel's  Bibellexic.  iv.  p. 
G19;  Davidson,  Introd.  ii.  \).  457).  3.  The  Chaldee  trans- 
lation speaks  already  of  a  number  of  scribes  (I.  Kings  x.  5, 
10)  sitting  in  a  house  of  learning  (I.  Kings  xix.  20),  and 
mentions  the  disciples  of  the  prophets  instead  of  their  sons 
(III.  Kings  XX.  32). 

ft.  Reasons  not  convincing. — But,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  urged  that  Abarbanel  sjicaks  in  the  foregoing  manner 
on  account  of  the  Chaldee  translation;  that  the  latter 
introduces  the  terms  "  scribes  "  and  "  disciples  "  and  "  house 
of  learning 'Mvithout  sufficient  reason,  substituting  them 
for  the  familiar  scrijitural  words  "prophets"  and  "sons  of 
the  prophets."  Besides,  the  very  disciples  wlio  are  said  to 
])repare   themselves     for   prophesying    actually   prophesy 


110  INTROI)  UCTION. 

already  (III.  Kings  xx.  35;  \\.  Kings  ii.  3,  5).  And  to  base 
tho  whole  theory  of  the  prophetic  schools  on  tlie  fact  that 
the  sons  of  the  jirophets  sit  before  their  superior  is  to 
proceed  unscientiiically,  to  say  the  least. 

;/.  Schools  involved  in  Uncertainty.— Still,  if  we 
grant  that  regular  proi)hetic  schools  were  organized,  the 
historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  speak  only  incident- 
ally of  them.  Thus  we  do  not  know  whether  the  prophets 
that  played  such  an  important  part  in  the  history  of  Saul 
ami  David  continued  to  exist  after  the  time  of  those 
kings;  again,  we  know  that  king  Achab  was  a  persecutor 
of  tho  sons  of  the  prophets,  that  they  existed  at  the  time  of 
Elias  and  Eliseus,  and  that  they  were  extinct  when  the 
books  of  Machabees  and  of  Ecclesiasticus  were  written  (I. 
Mac.  iv.  4G;  ix.  27;  xiv.  41;  Ecclus.  xxxvi.  IT).  AVhether 
their  existence  was  continuous  or  interrupted,  whether  they 
lasted  till  about  the  period  when  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  received  its  last  additions,  or  ended  at  the  time 
of  Elias  and  Eliseus  must  remain  an  historical  problem 
(Trochon,  "  Introd.  generalc  aux  Prophetes,"  Paris,  1883,  p. 

XXX.). 

6.  Pkot^arle  Description  of  the  Schools. — The  prob- 
able existence  of  the  prophetic  schools  being  admitted,  their 
organization  is  at  best  but  conjectural.  The  colleges  appear 
to  have  differed  considerably  in  the  number  of  their  mem- 
bers; some  must  have  been  quite  numerous  (III.  Kings 
xviii.  4;  IV.  Kings  ii.  IG).  An  elderly  or  loading  prophet 
presided  over  them  (I.  Kings  xix.  20),  called  their  Father 
(I.  Kings  X.  12)  or  Master  (IV.  Kings  ii.  3),  who  may 
have  been  admitted  to  his  ofhce  by  the  ceremony  of  anoint- 
ing (III.  Kings  xix.  l(i;  Is.  Ixi.  1;  Ps.  civ.  (cv.)  ].">).  The 
members  of  the  college  were  called  his  sons.  The  chief  sub- 
ject of  study  was  no  doubt  the  Law  and  its  interpretation. 
Subsidiary  subjects  of  instruction  were  inusic-and  sacred 
poetry,  both  of  which  had  been  connected  with  ])ro})hecy 
from  Ihc  fiino  of  Moses  (Ex.  xv.  20)  aiul  the  Judges  (.Tudg. 
iv.  4;  v.   1;  cf.    1.  Kings  x.  T);  IV.  Kings  iii.   15;  I.  Par. 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  Ill 

XXV.  16;  Jon.  ii.  2;  Is.  xii.  1;  xxvi.  1;  Ilabac.  iii.  2).  It 
was  also  probably  the  duty  of  the  proplietical  students  to 
comjiose  verses  for  the  Temple  music.  Having  been 
trained  and  tanght,  the  prophets,  whether  still  residing  in 
the  college  or  having  left  its  precincts,  had  the  task  of 
teaching  others.  Monthly  and  weekly  religious  meetings 
appear  to  have  been  held  by  the  prophets  (IV.  Kings  iv.  23; 
Ezech.  viii.  1;  xiv.  1;  xx.  1;  IV.  Kings  vi.  32).  It  was  prob- 
ably at  these  meetings  that  many  of  the  warnings  and 
exhortations  on  morality  and  a  spiritual  religion  were  ad- 
dressed by  the  prophets  to  their  countrymen.  The  general 
appearance  and  life  of  the  prophets  seem  to  have  been  similar 
to  those  of  the  Eastern  dervish  of  tlie  present  day.  Their 
dress  was  a  hairy  garment,  girt  with  a  leathern  gii-dle  (Is. 
XX.  2;  Zach.  xiii.  4;  Matt.  iii.  4).  Tiiey  were  married  or 
unmarried  as  they  chose;  but  their  manner  of  life  and  diet 
were  stern  and  austere  (IV.  Kings  iv.  10,  38;  III.  Kings 
xix.  G;  Matt.  iii.  4;  cf.  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  930  f.). 

3.  The  Prophetic  Office  was  an  Ordinary  Institu- 
tion.— a.  The  priests  are  not  the  Ordinary  Teachers. — Thus 
far  we  have  shown  that  the  prophetic  office  w^as  an  extra- 
ordimiry  one,  whether  we  consider  the  divine  call  to  that 
dignity  or  its  exercise.  But  considered  from  another  point 
of  view,  the  .prophetic  office  Avas  an  ordinary  one.  It  is 
often  stated  that  in  the  Old  Testament  the  teaching-office 
was  intrusted  to  the  order  of  priests  or  to  the  high-jn-iest 
(Becanus,  Anal.  V.  et  N.  T.,  Xll.  vi.  q.  2;  Al.  Vincenzi,  De 
Ilebraioruni  et  Christianorum  sacra  monarchia,  ]).  3  If.). 
But  the  arguments  on  which  this  contention  rests  are  not 
at  all  solid  enough  to  bear  up  the  superstructure.  The 
texts  usually  advanced  as  proofs  either  refer  to  the  judicial 
power  (Dent.  xvii.  8  If.;  II.  Par.  xix.  10)  of  the  priests  and 
Levites,  or  they  concern  the  prophetic  privilege  of  the 
Urim  and  Thummim  (Ugolini,  Thesaurus  Antiqu.,  xii.  \). 
375-784).  The  Rabins,  who  are  surely  not  accustomed  to 
lessen  their  national  privileges,  maintain  that  only  the  king 


112  INTRO  I)  UCTION. 

or  tlic  president  of  the  Saiihedrin,  or  another  person  con- 
stituted in  the  liighest  oflice  of  the  comnionwealtli,  coukl 
use  tlie  Urim  and  Thuniniini  in  case  there  was  question  of 
a  public  alTair.  According  to  the  Scriptures,  only  princes 
of  (lie  nation,  such  as  Josue,  Samuel,  Saul,  David,  had  re- 
course to  this  method  of  consulting  the  divine  will,  and 
that  only  in  matters  of  thehigliest  importance  (Jos.  vii.  10 
IV.;  I.  Kings  x.  20  It'.;  xiv.  18;  xxii.  10;  xxiii.  9;  xxviii.  G). 
IJesides  all  this,  the  Jews  themselves  did  not  attribute  the 
teaching-ministry  to  the  priesthood,  but  to  the  proi)hets 
(cf.  I.  Mac.  iv.  4G;  xiv.  41).  Jesus  exhorts  his  audience  to 
obey  the  precepts,  not  of  the  priests,  but  of  the  scribes  and 
the  Pharisees,  of  whom  he  says  that  they  sit  in  the  chair  of 
Moses,  not  of  Aaron  (]\ratt.  xxiii.  2  IT.).  And  how  could 
the  priests  and  Levites  fullil  the  ollice  of  instructing  the 
nation,  since  they  themselves  were  often  given  to  idolati-y 
and  immoral  jiractices  ?  (II.  Par.  xxxvi.  15.)  It  must  also 
be  ke})t  in  mind  that  before  tlie  deposit  of  faith  was  otti- 
cially  completed,  none  but  an  inspired  judge  could  decide 
linally  Avhether  any  given  doctrine,  not  opposed  to  previ- 
ously revealed  truth,  was  really  revealed  or  the  mere  result 
of  human  thought. 

h.  Deut.  xviii.  9-22. — The  reasons,  then,  for  ascribing 
the  ordinary  teaching-office  to  the  priesthood  of  the  Old 
I'estament  are  rather  apparent  than  real  arguments,  and 
several  considerations  have  led  us  to  doubt  such  a  joint 
ministry.  But  there  are  other  Scripture  passages  in  which 
the  ordinary  teaching-oflice  is  actually  ascribed  to  the 
prophets.  AVe  read  in  Deuteronomy  (xviii.  9-22) :  ''When 
thou  art  come  into  the  land  which  the  Lord  thy  God  shall 
ffive  thee,  beware  lest  thou  have  a  niiiul  to  imitate  the 
abominations  of  those  nations;  neither  let  there  be  found 
among  you  any  one  that  shall  exi)iate  his  son  or  daughter, 
making  them  to  i)aas  through  the  fire:  or  that  c<uisulteth 
soutlisayers,  or  observeth  dreams  and  omens;  neither  let 
there  l)e  any  wizard,  nor  charnuM-,  nor  any  one  that  consult- 
eth  pythonic  s])irits  or  fortuiu'-tcllers,  or  that  seeketh  the 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  113 

truth  from  the  dead;  for  the  Lord  abliorreth  all  tliese 
things,  and  for  these  abominations  he  will  destroy  them 
at  thy  coming;  thou  sbalt  be  perfect  and  without  spot 
before  the  Lord  thy  God.  These  nations  whose  land 
thou  shalt  possess  hearken  to  soothsayers  and  diviners; 
but  thou  art  otherwise  instructed  by  tlie  Lord  thy  God. 
The  Lord  thy  God  will  raise  up  to  thee  a  prophet  of  thy 
nation  and  of  tliy  brethren  like  unto  me:  him  thou  shalt 
hear,  as  thou  desiredst  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  Horeb,  when 
the  assembly  was  gathered  together,  and  saidst:  Let  me 
not  hear  any  more  the  voice  of  the  Lord  my  God,  neither 
let  me  see  any  more  this  exceeding  great  fire,  lest  1  die. 
And  the  Lord  said  to  me:  They  have  spoken  all  things 
well.  I  will  raise  them  up  a  prophet  out  of  the  midst  of 
their  brethren  like  to  thee:  and  I  will  put  my  words  in 
his  mouth,  and  he  sliall  speak  all  that  1  shall  command 
him;  and  he  that  will  not  hear  his  words,  which  he  shall 
speak  in  my  name,.  I  will  be  the  revenger.  But  the 
prophet  who  being  corrupted  with  pride  shall  speak  in  my 
name  things  that  1  did  not  command  him  to  say,  or  in  the 
name  of  strange  gods,  shall  be  slain.  And  if  in  silent 
thought  thou  answer:  How  shall  I  know  the  word  that 
the  Lord  hath  not  spoken  ?  thou  shalt  have  this  sign : 
Whatsoever  that  same  prophet  foretelleth  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord,  and  it  cometh  not  to  pass,  that  thing  the  Lord 
hath  not  spoken,  but  the  prophet  hath  forged  it  by  the 
pride  of  his  mind:  and  therefore  thou  shalt  not  fear  him," 
a.  Reasons  for  applying  the  Text  to  Christ 
ALONE. — Many  interpreters  apply  this  passage  to  the  Mes- 
sias  alone.  The  reasons  for  this  view  are  the  following: 
1.  In  the  whole  text  there  is  question  of  "  the  prophet"  in 
the  singular  number.  2.  The  proiDhet  spoken  of  is  to  be 
like  Moses.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  singular  number 
has  in  Hebrew  often  a  collective  meaning;  the  sacred 
writer  speaks  in  Deuteronomy  (xvii.  14-30)  of  the  king  in 
the  singular  number,  though  he  evidently  applies  his  prin- 
ciples to  all  Israelite  kings.     The  predicted  similitude  be- 


1 1 4  INTROD  UCTION. 

tween  the  prophet  und  Moses  does  not  mean  equality  or 
identity.  If  this  argument  be  urged  too  far,  it  will  prove 
that  "the  jjrophet"  cannot  apply  to  Christ.  For  if  tlie 
prophets  were  not  like  Moses,  because  they  were  his  infe- 
riors, Christ  Avas  not  like  Moses  because  lie  was  infinitely 
his  superior.  It  appears  then  that  we  cannot  hold  the  po- 
sition of  St,  Athanasius  (c.  Arian.  Or.  1,  54.  M.  2G,  12G), 
St.  Isidore  Pelusiota  (ep.  iii.  94.  M.  98,  T9T),  St.  Gregory 
of  Nyssa  (Test.  c.  Jud.  2.  M.  46,  204),  Cajetan,  Joseph  a 
Costa,  Estius,  Patrizi,  Bade,  Corluy,  and  others  who  make 
the  above  text  an  exclusively  Messianic  prophecy. 

fi.  Its  Typical  Kki-khknce  to  Ciikist. — Clement  of 
Alexandria  (Paidagog,  i.  7.  M.  8,  322),  Venerable  Bede 
(In  h.  loc.  M.  91,  38T),  and  St.  Augustine  (c.  Faust,  xvi. 
19.  20.  M.  42,  327),  understand  tlie  })assage  as  ajiplying 
to  Josue  in  its  literal  and  to  Christ  in  its  typical  sense. 
The  same  twofold  reference  to  Cin-ist  and  .Josue  is  held 
by  Vatable  and  Emmanuel  Sa.  In  the  Middle  Ages, 
the  interlineary  Gloss  and  Burgensis  api)lied  the  first 
part  of  the  passage  to  the  proi)hets  in  general  (verse  15), 
but  the  latter  part  to  Christ  alone  (verse  18).  Eusebius 
of  Ca'sarea  in  three  passages  of  his  writings  explicitly 
excludes  a  reference  of  the  passage  to  the  prophets  (l)em- 
onstrat.  Evan.  iii.  2;  ix.  11;  Eclog.  Pro^di.  i.  15;  M.  22, 
1G8;  089  ff.,  1072);  and  in  another  passage  the  same 
writer  clearly  explains  tliis  prophecy  as  applying  to  the 
])r()i)liets  (Eclog.  Proi)h.  iv.  M.  22,  1192).  But  the  great 
i)ulk  of  writers  uiulerstand  the  Mosaic  i)rediction  as  ap})ly- 
ing  to  the  whole  series  of  prophets,  including  Christ  as 
their  head  ami  highest  fulfilment.  For  this  opinion  we 
may  api)eal  to  St.  Jerome  (In  Is.  viii.  19.  M.  24,  125),  Ori- 
gen  (c.  Cels.  i.  'M\.  M.  11,  429),  Theodoret  (In  Jer.  vi.  IG. 
M.  81,  545),  Kiuibanus  Maurus  (cf.  in  h.  I.  M.  108,  90G), 
Walafr.  Strab.  (Glossa  onlin.  in  h.  I.  M.  113,  471),  St. 
Bruno  Ast.  (M.  1G4,  512),  B.  Alhertus  Magn.  (In  Agg.  ii. 
5),  Card.  Hugo,  Nic.  Lyranus,  Dion,  the  Carth.,  Aljihons 
Tostatus,   Honfrciius,  :i   Lapidc,  Mcnochius,  Tiriiuis.  Fr;is- 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  115 

sen,  Gordon,  Calmet,  Allioli  (In  Jer.  xxviii.  G),  Reinke 
(Beitriige,  vi.  pp.  297  if.)'  Loch  and  Reischl  (In  h.  1.),  Meig- 
nan  (Les  propht'tios  messian.,  pp.  Gil  ff.),  Bisping  (In  Actus 
iii.  21),  A.  Scliolz  (Einleitung  iii.  p.  240),  Knabenbauer  (Dei- 
Prophet  Isaias,  p.  3  ff.),  de  Ilummelaiier  (In  I.  Kings  x.  5. 
Comm.  p.  114),  and  others  of  less  autliority.  We  said  that 
most  authors  gave  this  interpretation  of  Moses'  words;  for 
the  exphxnation  of  some  modern  Jews  and  Judaizers  that 
the  prediction  refers  to  the  line  of  prophets  only,  and  in  no 
way  to  the  Messias,  cannot  claim  any  prol)ability  (cf.  Bal- 
densperger,  pp.  138  ff.).  Not  to  mention  that  it  is  taken  as 
a  Messianic  prophecy  in  Acts  iii.  22,  23;  vii.  37,  and  indi- 
rectly also  in  Jo.  i.  45;  vi.  45  f. ;  iv.  25,  we  must  draw  at- 
tention to  the  array  of  Fathers  whose  names  are  given  in 
the  foregoing  lists  of  Messianic  interpretations.  To  them 
may  be  added  the  testimony  of  many  more  Fathers  who 
certainly  explain  the  passage  in  question  as  referring  to 
the  Messias,  though  they  do  not  distinctly  state  whether 
they  limit  it  to  the  Messias  alone  or  extend  it  to  other 
prophets,  whether  they  take  it  in  a  literal  or  a  typical 
sense  as  Messianic.  Among  these  Fathers  are:  Tertullian 
(c.  Marc.  iv.  22.  M.  2,  414),'  St.  Cyprian  (Test.  adv.  Jud.,  i. 
18.  M.  4,  688),  Lactantius  (Instit.  div.  iv.  17.  M.  6,  500), 
8t.  Philastr.  (Ha?r.  IIG.  M.  12,  1242),  St.  Gaudentius 
(Serm.  ix.  M.  20,  909),  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (Cat.  xii.  17. 
M.  33,744),  St.  Epiphanius  (Hser.  xlii.  11;  Schol.  xxvii. 
ex.  ev.  Luc;  Schol.  viii.  ex.  ep.  ad  Gal.  M.  41,  744,  777), 
St.  Chrysostom  (In  Anom.  hom.  xii.  1;  in  II.  Cor.  hom. 
vii.  3.  M.  48,803;  Ixi.  44G),  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  (De 
adoratione  in  spiritu  et  verit.,  ii.  M.  G8,  213,  253). 

All  we  have  to  show,  in  order  to  establish  our  thesis  con- 
cerning the  divinely  ap2)ointed  connection  between  the 
ordinary  office  of  teaching  in  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
prophetic  office,  is  the  truth  that  Moses'  prophecy  refers  to 
the  whole  series  of  prophets  and  not  only  to  their  common 
head  and  fulfilment.  Now  this  is  easily  shown  from  the 
position  of  the  prophecy  in  Deuteronomy,  from  its  con- 


1 1 6  INTROD  UCriON. 

text,  and  from  other  information  wo  have  about  the  i)ro- 
phetic  oftice  and  duty. 

y.  Its  Litkkai.  Kefhuexce  to  the  Prophets. — 1. 
The  Mosaic  prophecy  cannot  a})ply  to  the  Messias  alone  on 
account  of  its  position  in  tiie  ]k)ok  of  Deuteronomy.  After 
reminding  the  peo})le  in  the  second  Deuteronomic  treatise 
of  its  duties  towards  God  (Deut.  xii.  l.-xvi.  17),  the  wri- 
ter naturally  passes  on  to  the  duties  towards  those  who 
take  God's  place  in  regard  to  the  people  (xvi.  18-xviii.  22), 
and  then  considers  its  duties  towards  its  neighbor  (xix.  1- 
xxii.  30).  Among  those  who  take  (lod's  place  Moses  treats 
first  of  the  civil  authorities,  the  judges  (xvi.  18-xvii.  13) 
and  the  kings  (xvii.  14-20);  then  lie  considers  the  relig- 
ious authorities,  the  Levites  and  the  priests  (xviii.  1-8), 
and  the  pro[)hets  (xviii.  9-22).  Those  authors  who  restrict 
the  Mosaic  prophecy  to  the  Messias  alone  destroy  this 
clear  aiid  beautiful  arrangement  of  Deuteronomy, 

2.  The  Mosaic  prophecy  cannot  refer  to  the  Messias 
alone  on  account  of  its  context  in  Deuteronomy.  Tlie 
reason  why  God  so  much  insists  on  avoiding  all  the  abomi- 
nations of  the  luitions  is  the  fact  that  he  will  raise  up  a 
prophet  out  of  tlie  people's  brethren,  whom  any  one  may 
consult  whenever  occasion  offers  to  do  so.  And  how  can 
this  promise  be  said  to  be  fulfilled,  if  the  projihet  was  no 
one  but  the  Messias?  Surely,  the  people  could  not  have 
recourse  to  him  in  their  daily  needs  for  all  the  centu- 
ries that  passed  between  the  time  of  Moses  and  the  coming 
of  Christ.  Again,  God  promises  to  give  in  the  iirophet 
what  the  people  had  asked  for  on  Mount  Sinai.  Now  the 
peo})le  had  not  asked  for  the  Messias,  but  for  some  one  to 
interpret  for  them  the  will  of  their  divine  master,  i.e.,  for  a 
prophet.  The  same  may  I)e  seen  from  the  ojiposition  be- 
tween the  true  and  the  false  ])rophets.  Had  the  criterion 
of  the  true  i)r()i)het  ;i})j)lied  to  the  Messias  alone,  the  first 
prophet  whose  pre<li('tions  haj)i)cned  to  be  verified  might 
have  claimed  (he  right  of  the  Messiasship  (cf.  ,i<iv.  xxviii. 
7-9;  III.  Kings  xxii.  28). 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  117 

3.  All  we  know  of  the  duties  and  the  rights  of  the 
prophets  agrees  perfectly  with  the  opinion  that  the 
prophets  were  divinely  constituted  as  the  ordinary  teachers 
of  Israel.  God  himself  elects  them  (Jer.  vi.  17;  xxix.  15; 
i.  7;  vii.  25;  xxv.  4;  Is.  vi.  8;  Am.  ii.  11;  vii.  15);  they 
are  the  officially  recognizetl  persons  to  be  consulted  in  the 
daily  difficulties  of  life,  and  they  are  real  lawgivers  (Matt. 
V.  17;  vii.  12;  xxii.  40;  I.  Kings  x.  25);  God  himself  puts 
liis  words  into  their  mouth  (Is.  li.  16;  lix.  21;  i.  10; 
xxviii.  14;  xxxix.  5;  Hi.  6;  xvi.  13;  xxxvii.  22;  xlii.  19; 
Jer.  i.  9;  V.  14;  ii.  4,  31;  vii.  2;  xix.  2;  xxvi.  2;  Ezech. 
xvii.  21;  xxi.  22),  in  such  a  manner  that  all  are  bound  to 
obey  the  prophet  under  pain  of  the  greatest  punishments 
(III.  Kings  XX.  35;  IV.  Kings  xvii.  13;  II.  Par.  xxxvi.  15  f.; 
Am.  vii.  IG  f.). 

c.  The  Prophets  were  the  Ordinary  Teachers. — Hence 
the  prophets  were  the  ordinary  preachers  of  morals  and  of 
religion,  the  ordinary  expounders  of  the  Mosaic  law  both 
ritual  and  ethical,  and  consequently  they  may  be  said  to 
have  held  the  pastoral  office  in  Israel.  No  doubt  they  had 
God's  special  assistance  in  the  performance  of  their  ardu- 
ous duties,  and  when  the  occasion  required  it  God  enlight- 
ened their  understanding  in  regard  to  the  future  fate  of 
their  nation  and  the  character  of  their  coming  redeemer. 
And  since  the  prophetic  gift  is  not  a  "  charisma  gratum 
faciens,"  but  a  "  charisma  gratis  datum  " — in  other  words, 
si!ice  their  proplietic  gift  was  vouchsafed  to  the  prophets 
for  the  benefit  of  others,  God  moved  also  their  will  effica- 
ciouslv  that  they  might  communicate,  eitlier  in  writing  or 
by  word  of  mouth,  the  light  which  they  had  received.  In 
})r()phecy  we  have,  therefore,  all  the  elements  required  to 
constitute  inspiration  strictly  so  called,  and  besides  we  find 
there  divine  revelation  in  the  strict  acceptation  of  the 
word. 

Exception  Answered. — It  may  be  asked,  How  could  God 
permit  the  prophets  to  become  extinct,  if  he  had  ordained 
them    as   the   ordinary    teaching    officials   of   the  Jewish 


1 1 8  INTROD  UCTION. 

nation?  There  are  several  answers  to  tlie  difficulty: 
a.  'V\\Q.  Jews  after  returning  from  the  Balnlonian  exile 
were  less  prone  to  idolatry  than  they  had  been  in  the 
earlier  period  of  their  history.  For  though  we  find  thcni 
at  times  negligent  in  their  religious  duties,  we  never  again 
see  them  given  to  the  worship  of  false  gods.  Z*.  The  re- 
vealed doctrine  needed  to  prei)arc  the  ciiosen  people  for 
the  future  teaching  of  Christ  was  completed  at  the  time 
of  the  Babylonian  exile,  so  that  no  new  inspired  teachers 
were  required  to  pronounce  on  the  truth  of  any  newly- 
taught  doctrine.  The  scribes,  who  took  tlieir  rise  after  the 
return  of  the  nation  from  Babylon,  were  fully  sutKcient  to 
guard  whatever  liad  l)een  revealed  together  with  its  tradi- 
tional commentaries  (cf.  Joseph,  c.  App.  i.  8;  I.  Mach.  iv. 
4G;  ix.  27;  xiv.  41;  Eccli.  xxxvi.  17  Creek  text). 

Hence  we  need  not  on  this  account  abandon  our  thesis 
that  the  prophets  were  the  ordinary  teachers  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  matters  of  faith  and  morals;  nor  need  we  say  that 
after  the  exile  the  prophets  were  silent  for  fear  of  the  Ccn- 
tiles  (Hengstenberg),  nor  that  then  they  did  not  feel  the 
need  of  redemption  ((jirimm,  Older),  nor  that  historical 
and  didactic  literature  absorbed  all  the  JcAvish  activity 
(Schi'irer),  nor  that  the  Law  was  felt  to  be  a  sutlicient  revela- 
tion (Iloltzinann),  nor  that  the  intellectual  faculty  of  the 
l)eoi)le  had  been  developed  too  greatly  to  admit  of  prophe- 
cies (Winer,  liealworterb.  ii.  ji.  283;  cf.  Cornely,  Introd.  II. 
ii.  i)p.  282  IT.;  Baldensperger,  "Das  Selbstbewusstsein 
Jesu,"  pp.  GO  If.;  .Schiirer,  "Tlie  Jewish  People,"  II.  ii.  pp. 
129  If.). 

<l.  Prophetic  Influence  in  the  State. — As  a  natural  con- 
se<picnce  it  follows  tliat  the  })rophets  were  a  j)olitical  ])ower 
in  the  state.  Strong  in  the  safeguard  of  their  religious 
character,  tliey  were  able  to  serve  as  a  counterpoise  to  the 
royal  authority  wlien  wielded  even  by  an  Achab.  liut  their 
political  importance  extc'lided  farther  still;  they  were  the 
])reachers  of  patriotism — a  patriotism  founded  on  religious 
motives.     'J'o  the  subject  of  tlie  thet)cracy  the  enemy  of 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  119 

the  nation  was  the  enemy  of  God,  the  traitor  to  the  com- 
monwealth was  a  traitor  to  Jehovah;  the  political  enemy 
was  a  representative  of  moral  evil,  while  the  political 
capital,  Jernsalem,  was  the  centre  of  the  kingdom  of  God — 
"  the  city  of  our  God,  the  mountain  of  holiness;  beautiful 
for  situation,  the  joy  of  the  whole  earth,  the  city  of  the 
great  king." 

e.  Secondary  Functions  of  the  Prophets. — Besides  all  this 
the  prophets  were  the  national  annalists  and  historians. 
A  great  portion  of  Isaias,  Jeremias,  Daniel,  Jonas,  and  of 
Aggeus  is  directly  or  indirectly  history.  And  finally,  to 
complete  the  political  importance  of  the  prophets,  they 
served  as  the  nation's  poets.  ■  It  has  already  been  men- 
tioned that  music  and  poetry,  chants  and  hymns,  were  a 
main  part  of  the  studies  of  the  class  from  which,  generally 
speaking,  tlie  j^i'ophets  were  chosen.  Hence,  not  only  the 
songs  of  the  prophetic  writings,  but  even  their  narrative 
and  instructive  parts,  are  poetical  or  breathe  the  sjiirit  of 
poetry.  It  may  be  safely  stated  that  had  the  prophets' 
directions  and  counsels  on  political  matters  been  heeded, 
luid  not  the  kings  sought  their  selfisli  ends  instead  of  the 
natioiuil  welfare,  and  had  the  people  paid  less  attention  to 
the  false  prophets,  the  fate  of  the  Hebrew  commonwealth 
would  have  beeii^ar  different  from  what  it  really  proved 
to  be. 

4.  Prophets  and  Priests.— It  may  throw  more  light  on 
the  nature  of  the  prophetic  office  if  we  compare  it  witli 
some  of  the  other  divinely  ajipointed  dignities  of  the  Jew- 
ish community.  And  first  of  all,  it  must  be  well  remem- 
bered that  the  prophetic  calling  differed  essentially  from 
the  priestly  rank.  The  latter  consisted  in  learning  the 
Law  and  applying  it  to  the  ritual  and  the  legal  questions 
(Mai.  ii.  7;  Lev.  x,  11;  Deut.  xxxiii.  9,  10;  xxiv.  8; 
Agg.  ii.  11;  Ezech,  xliv.  23,  24).  AVe  may  even  suppose 
that  the  written  law  and  the  oral  traditions  were  perpetu- 
ated by  means  of  the  priesthood  (Deut.  xvii.  9;  cf.  xxxi.  C). 
If  Ave,  therefore,  find  that  several  priests,  such  as  Jeremias, 


1 20  IN  r ROB  ucrioN. 

Kzocliicl,  Zacliarias,  and  even  Levites,  such  as  TTanan  and 
perhaps  llabacuc,  ai)})C'ar  as  i)ropliets,  we  n)ay  rightly  infer 
that  the  priestly  and  the  Levitical  state  were  a  fit  prepara- 
tion for  tlie  divine  call  to  the  prophetic  office,  thongli  both 
were  essentially  distinct  functions.  Preaching  as  snclvhad 
no  representative  part  in  the  tem2ilc-service,  during  which 
only  a  few  passages  of  Scripture  were  read  as  a  ceremonial 
accompaniment.  It  is  only  after  the  Babylonian  exile  that 
])reaching  and  reading  were  introduced  into  the  synagogue- 
service  as  a  regular  part  of  the  divine  worship.  The 
priests  as  such  were  to  offer  sacrifices,  the  prophets  as  such 
had  to  preach  and  to  teach  the  Jewish  people. 

<i.  They  are  Distinct. — It  is  true  that  while  the  priests 
attend  to  the  letter  of  the  Law  and  its  application  to  the 
sacrificial  service,  the  prophets  attend  more  to  its  spirit, 
and  infuse  its  moral  precepts  into  tlie  daily  life  of  the 
people.  They  generally  insist  on  obedience  to  the  will  of 
God  as  revealed  in  the  Law,  and  their  exhortations  dwell 
less  on  the  external  precepts  of  the  Law  than  on  its  sub- 
stance (cf.  Robertson  Smith,  "  The  Old  Testament  in  the 
Jewish  Church,"  New  York,  1890,  pp.  285  ff.).  They  speak 
loudly  against  the  dead  works  not  vivified  by  the  spirit, 
they  pour  out  bitter  sarcasm  against  fasts  and  ceremonies 
(Os.  vi.  0;  Jcr.  vii.  21-23;  Joel  ii.  13;^.  Iviii.).  It  has 
been  Avell  said  that  the  prophets  were  th^conscience  of  the 
Jewish  state.  For  as  in  man  conscience  applies  the  law 
Avritten  in  the  human  heart  to  single  actions,  so  did  the 
prophets  apply  the  Law  kept  by  the  i)riests  to  the  iiulivid- 
ual  acts  of  the  Israelite. 

h.  Not  Opposed  to  Each  Other.— But  it  docs  iu)t  follow 
fnnn  all  (liis  that  there  was  an  o])posilion  between  the 
priesthood  and  flio  prophetic  order.  When  Osee  (iv.  4) 
wishes  to  draw  a  vivid  picture  of  the  iieo[)l(''s  depravity,  he 
says:  "  ]>ut  yet  let  not  any  imin  judge:  and  let  not  a  man 
be  rebuked:  for  thy  })eople  are  as  they  that  contradict  the 
pri(ist."  "Such  is  the  s])irit,"  says  Monsieur  Tichir  (p. 
553),  "  which  lives  in  all  the  ])rophets.     Jl'  in  their  invec- 


THE  PEOPIIETIC  OFFICE.  121 

tives  against  vice  they  at  times  name  the  priests  together 
with  the  people,  it  is  the  great  respect  for  that  exalted  dig- 
nity that  inspires  them.  The  more  venerable  the  office 
is,  the  more  culpable  are  in  the  prophets'  eyes  those  who 
profane  it  by  their  dissolute  manners.  If,  again,  they  2)re- 
dict  a  new  priesthood,  a  holier  and  more  spiritual  religion 
than  was  that  of  the  synagogue,  we  in  our  days  speak  in 
the  same  way  when  we  treat  of  our  heavenly  home.  The 
jirophets  well  knew  that  God  brings  his  work  to  its  ulti- 
mate perfectiou  by  a  continuous  process  of  development, 
and  that  a  more  perfect  state  must  follow  the  preceding 
less  perfect." 

5.  Prophets  and  Kings.— There  have  been  attempts  to 
make  Jesus  Christ  a  thorough  republican,  opposed  to  all 
the  pretensions,  just  or  unjust,  of  monarchy.  In  the  same 
way  have  the  Jewish  prophets  been  represented  as  opposed 
to  the  principle  of  Hebrew  monarchy.  Perhaps  it  may 
be  well  to  let  Keuss  (Les  Prophetes,  pp.  37,  38)  explain  the 
state  of  the  question :  "  Many  have  believed,  or  still  believe, 
that  the  prophets  were  democrats  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word,  i.e.,  were  on  principle  opjiosed  to  royalty.  They 
contrast  the  monarchy  as  instituted  by  men  with  the 
theocracy,  as  if  the  two  Avere  incompatible.  They  arm 
themselves  with  a  text  about  Samuel  (I.  Kings  viii.),  wholly 
misunderstood,  and  with  a  stray  passage  from  the  books  of 
Kings,  in  which  one  or  another  prince  is  the  object  of 
blame  uttered  j^i'ecisely  from  a  religious  point  of  view; 
finally,  they  appeal  to  certain  encounters  between  such  a 
prophet  and  such  a  representative  of  the  civil  authority. 
It  is  hard  to  understand  how  this  j^i'cjudice  can  continue 
in  spite  of  all  the  facts  that  contradict  it.  We  find,  it  is 
true,  among  the  Israelites  local  or  municipal  democratic 
institutions;  but  they  have  existed  before  and  independ- 
ently of  the  prophets,  and  the  whole  Jewish  nation  as  such 
has  never  formed  a  republic,  unless  that  name  be  given  to 
a  state  of  things  in  which  there  is  no  government  at  all. 
The  East  has  never,  as  a  general  rule,  known  any  form  of 


122  INTRODUCTION. 

a  regular  government  except  the  monarchy^ — an  auto- 
cratic and  despotic  monarchy.  No  projjhet,  whether  of 
those  whose  deeds  are  recorded  in  authentic  writings  or 
of  any  other  chiss,  has  ever  preaclied  the  upsetting  of  the 
throne  in  tlie  interest  of  an  entirely  new  constitution.  On 
the  contrary,  the  projihets  have  been  the  first  writers,  if  we 
may  ai)i)ly  that  expression  to  tlie  prophets,  who  have  con- 
ceived and  jjroclaimcd  the  priiicij[)le  of  governmental  legit- 
imacy; and  if,  in  cither  of  the  two  kingdoms  formed  after 
the  breaking  up  of  David's  monarchy  a  prophet  has  in 
conse(pience  of  the  perpetual  revolutions  embraced  the 
side  of  one  pretender  against  another,  or  that  of  the 
usurper  against  the  legitimate  heir  to  the  crown,  this  way 
of  acting  had  other  causes,  and  was  in  no  way  a  profession 
of  democracy  (IV^.  Kings  ix.).  If  one  is  bent  on  giving 
this  luime  to  the  courage  with  which  they  pleaded  the 
cause  of  the  poor,  the  oppressed,  the  victims  of  misdirected 
Justice,  against  an  aristocracy  of  monopolists  and  usurers, 
we  shall  not  quarrel  about  tiie  expression  though  it  is  not 
correct.  Nor  is  the  name  applied  more  fittingly  to  the 
good  sense  Avith  which  the  prophets  inveigh  against  the 
deplorable  policy  of  exhausting  the  last  resources  of  the 
land  in  order  to  make  warlike  preparations,  ridiculously 
insufficient,  against  the  forces  of  the  neighboring  powers 
between  Avhich  the  Israelites  were  inclosed.  The  prophets 
were  politicians,  not  intent  on  recommending  one  form  of 
government  rather  than  another,  but  on  reforming  the 
spirit  of  the  government  in  general;  on  giving  new  force  to 
the  principles  of  right,  justice,  i)rudenee,  social  morality — 
principles  which  were  sanctioned  by  the  religious  idea  that 
had  come  from  Ood  himself, — and  on  opposing  all  that 
might  lead  the  nation  to  its  ruin  "  (cf.  W.  \\.  Smith,  "The 
().  'I\  in  the  Jrwisl)  Chuivli,"  pp.  :M!)  f.). 

6.  The  Prophets  and  the  Pentateuch. — After  con- 
sidering the  relation  of  the  prophets  to  the  priestliood  and 
to  the  kings,  we  must  add  a  word  alxiut  their  relation  to 
the  I'entateuchal  law.     According  to  the  latest  view  of  the 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  123 

critical  school,  tlie  representatives  of  which  are  Wellhausen, 
Reiiss,  Maurice  Vernes,  Robertson  Smith,  Graf,  and  others, 
the  traditionary  view  of  the  relation  between  the  i^rophets 
and  the  Pentateuch  must  be  inverted.  Edersheim  (Proph- 
ecy and  History  in  Eelation  to  the  Messiah,  New  York  1885, 
pp.  X.  f .)  states  tlie  question  thus :  "  Whether  the  state  of 
religious  belief  in  Israel  was  as  we  had  hitherto  imagined, 
or  quite  diiferent;  whether,  indeed,  there  were  any  Mosaic 
institutions  at  all,  or  else  the  greater  part  of  what  we  call 
such,  if  not  the  whole,  dated  from  much  later  times — the 
central  and  most  important  portion  of  them  from  the 
Exile;  whether,  in  short,  our  views  on  all  these  points  have 
to  be  completely  changed,  so  that  instead  of  the  Law  and 
the  Prophets  we  should  have  to  sjieak  of  the  Prophets  and 
the  Law;  and  instead  of  Moses  and  the  Prophets,  of  the 
Prophets  and  tlie  Priests;  and  the  larger  part  of  the  Old 
Testament  literature  should  be  ascribed  to  Exilian  aiul 
post-Exilian  times,  or  bears  the  impress  of  their  falsifica- 
tions— these  are  some  of  the  questions  which  now  engage 
theological  thinkers,  and  which  on  the  negative  side  are 
advocated  by  critics  of  such  learning  and  skill  as  to  have 
secured,  not  only  on  the  Continent,  but  even  among  our- 
selves, a  large  number  of  zealous  adherents." 

a.  Importance  of  this  Question.— Such  an  inverted  rela- 
tion between  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Prophets  carries 
along  with  it  the  most  important  consequences.  The  an- 
cient religion  of  Israel  was  nothing  but  a  form  of  natural 
religion,  as  barbarous  and  cruel  as  the  religious  systems  of 
the  heathen  nations  living  around  Israel.  The  question 
about  human  sacrifices,  about  the  Baal-worship,  and  about 
all  kiiulred  subjects,  must  in  this  case  be  rediscussed.  The 
prophets  are  so  many  self-appointed,  religious  enthusiasts, 
and  whiit  are  called  fulfilled  prophecies  are  simply  a  mis- 
take. "  Even  without  their  aid,"  says  Professor  Kuenen 
(Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel,  pp.  589  f.),  "  j^'o^y the- 
ism would  perhaps  have  made  way  for  the  recognition  and 
the  worsliip  of  one  only  God."     Still,  the  professor  thinks 


1 24  iNTRon  vcTion. 

it  (lonhtful  whethor  tlic  iiioiintheigin  of  the  pooj)]c,  not  of 
tlie  pliilosophers,  would  in  thut  ciise  liavc  been  etliical. 
Israel  is  therefore  indebted  for  its  dogmatic  tenets  concern- 
ing God  and  man's  relation  to  God,  and  for  its  moral  prin- 
ciples, to  the  activity  and  the  enthusiasm  of  the  propliets, 
Avhile  it  owes  its  ritual  constitution  and  its  ceremonial  code 
to  the  influence  of  the  priests.  The  prophets  made  Israel 
worship  Jehovah  and  observe  the  moral  law;  the  priests, 
])rePU})posing  the  prophetic  work,  added  all  the  regulations 
whicli  determined  the  mode  of  worship. 

h.  Smith's  View. — Kobertson  Smith  (The  Old  Testament 
in  the  Jewish  Church,  New  York,  1890,  ])p.  305  f.)  expresses 
his  views  in  this  way:  "The  Hebrews  before  the  Exile 
knew  a  twofold  Torah,  the  Toiah  of  the  priests  and  that 
of  the  prophets.  Neitiier  Torah  corresponds  with  the 
present  Pentateuch.  The  propliets  altogether  deny  to  the 
law  of  sacrifice  tlie  character  of  positive  revelation;  their 
attitude  to  questions  of  ritual  is  the  negative  attitude  of 
the  ten  commandments,  content  to  forbid  what  is  incon- 
sistent with  the  true  luiture  of  Jehovah,  and  for  the  rest  to 
leave  matters  to  their  OAvn  course.  The  priests,  on  the 
contrary,  have  a  ritual  and  legal  Torah  which  has  a  recog- 
nized place  in  the  state;  but  neither  in  the  old  priestly 
family  of  Eli  nor  in  the  Jerusalem  priesthood  of  the  sons  of 
Zadok  did  the  rules  and  the  practice  of  the  priests  corre- 
spond with  the  finished  system  of  the  Pentateuch.  .  .  . 
The  Levitical  ordinances,  whether  they  existed  before  the 
Exile  or  not,  were  not  yet  God's  word  to  Israel  at  that  time. 
For  God's  word  is  the  expression  of  his  practical  will. 
And  the  history  and  the  prophets  alike  make  it  clear  that 
God's  will  for  Israel's  salvation  took  quite  another  course." 

c.  Influence  on  the  Historical  Books. — It  hardly  needs 
to  be  stated  that  according  to  this  hypothesis  the  historical 
books  too  must  be  arranged  and  explained  in  a  way  dilTer- 
ent  from  the  traditional  view.  To  give  a  full  explanation 
of  the  critical  analysis  ai)i)lied  to  them  by  the  critics  would 
be  out  of  the  scope  of  the  present  Introduction  to  the  Mes- 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  125 

siaiiic  Prophecies.  Still  the  mention  of  the  critical  analysis 
cannot  be  entirely  omitted,  since  many  of  the  interpreta- 
tions given  by  the  critics  are  based  on  their  view  of  the 
historical  books.  "  The  historical  books  of  tlie  Old  Testa- 
ment," says  Professor  Driver  (Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  the  Old  Testament,  New  York,  1892,  pp.  2  ff.),  "form  two 
series:  one  consisting  of  the  books  from  Genesis  to  II.  Kings, 
embracing  the  period  from  the  creation  to  the  release  of 
Jehoiachiu  from  his  imprisonment  in  Babylon,  B.C.  562; 
the  other  comprising  the  books  of  Chronicles,  Ezra,  and 
Nehemiah, beginning  with  Adam  and  ending  with  the  second 
visit  of  Nehemiah  to  Jerusalem  in  i?.c.  432.  Though  differing 
from  each  other  materially  in  scope  and  manner  of  treat- 
ment, these  two  series  are  nevertheless  both  constructed 
upon  a  similar  plan:  no  entire  book  in  either  series  consists 
of  a  single  original  work;  but  older  writings  or  sources  have 
been  combined  by  a  compiler  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
points  of  juncture  are  often  plainly  discernible,  and  the 
sources  are  in  consequence  capable  of  being  separated  from 
one  another.  The  authors  of  the  Hebrew  historical  books 
— except  the  shortest,  as  Ruth  and  Esther — do  not,  as  a 
modern  historian  would  do,  rewrite  the  matter  in  their 
own  language;  they  excerpt  from  the  sources  at  their  dis- 
posal such  passages  as  are  suitable  to  their  purpose,  and  in- 
corporate them  in  their  work,  sometimes  adding  matter  of 
their  own,  but  often  (as  it  seems)  introducing  only  such 
modifications  of  form  as  are  necessary  for  the  purpose  of 
fitting  them  together,  or  accommodating  them  to  their  plan." 
And  later  on  (pp.  6  ff.)  the  author  applies  his  general  princi- 
ples to  the  book  of  Genesis  in  particular:  "As  soon  as  the 
book  is  studied  with  sufficient  attention,  phenomena  dis- 
close themselves  which  show  incontrovertibly  that  it  is 
composed  of  distinct  documents  or  sources,  which  have 
been  welded  together  by  a  later  compiler  or  redactor  into  a 
continuous  whole.  These  phenomejia  are  very  numerous, 
but  they  may  be  reduced  in  the  main  to  the  two  following 
heads:    (1)  The  same  event  is  dou])ly  recorded;  (2)   The 


126  INTRODUCTION. 

hmgiiage,  and  frcqucntl}^  the  re2>rcsentation  as  well,  varies 
in  different  sections.  .  .  .  The  sections  homogeneous  in  style 
and  character  with  [Gen.]  I.  l-II.  4  a  recur  at  intervals,  not 
in  (xonesis  only, but  in  tlie  following  books  to  Josue  inclusive; 
and  when  disengaged  from  the  rest  of  the  narrative,  and 
read  consecutively,  are  found  to  constitute  a  nearly  com- 
plete whole,  containing  a  systematic  account  of  the  orifjines 
of  Israel,  treating  with  particular  minuteness  the  various 
ceremonial  institutions  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  and  dis- 
playing a  consistent  regard  for  chronological  and  other 
statistical  data,  which  entitles  it  to  be  considered  as  the 
framework  of  our  present  llexatcuch.  'J'his  source  or 
document  has  received  different  names  suggested  ])y  one  or 
other  of  the  various  characteristics  attaching  to  it.  . .  .  More 
recently  by  Wellhausen,  Kuenen,  and  Delitzsch  it  has  been 
called  the  Priests'  Code.  This  last  designation  is  in  strict- 
ness applicable  only  to  the  ceremonial  sections  in  Exodus- 
Numbers;  these,  however,  form  such  a  large  and  character- 
istic portion  of  the  work  that  the  title  may  not  unsuitably 
be  extended  so  as  to  embrace  the  whole;  and  it  may  be  rep- 
resented conveniently,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  by  the  let- 
ter P'.  .  .  .  The  parts  of  Genesis  which  remain  after  the 
separation  of  P  have  next  to  be  considered.  These  also,  as 
it  seems,  are  not  homogeneous  in  structure.  Especially 
from  c.  20  onwards  the  narrative  exhi])its  marks  of  compo- 
sition; and  the  component  parts,  tliough  not  diifering  from 
one  another  in  diction  and  style  so  widely  as  either  differs 
from  P,  and  being  so  welded  together  that  the  lines  of  de- 
marcation between  them  frequently  cannot  be  fixed  with 
certainty,  appear  nevertheless  to  be  plainly  discernible. 
'J'hus  in  20,  1-17,  our  attention  is  arrested  by  the  use  of 
the  term  God  (Klohim),  while  in  c.  18, 19  (except  19,  29), 
and  in  the  similar  narrative  12:  10-20,  the  term  Jehovah 
is  uniforndy  employed.  For  such  a  variation  in  siuiilar 
and  consecutive  cha])ters  no  plausible  explanation  can  be 
assigned  except  diversity  of  authorship.  At  the  same  time 
the  fact  that  Klohim  is  not  here  accompaiued  by  the  other 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  127 

criteria  of  P's  style  forbids  our  assigning  the  sections  thus 
characterized  to  that  source.  It  seems  thus  that  the  parts 
of  Genesis  which  remain  after  the  separation  of  P  are 
formed  by  the  combination  of  two  narratives,  originally 
independent,  though  covering  largely  the  same  ground, 
which  have  been  united  by  a  subsequent  editor,  who  also 
contributed  inconsiderable  additions  of  his  own  into  a 
single,  continuous  narrative.  One  of  these  sources^  from 
its  use  of  the  name  Jahwoh,  is  now  generally  denoted  by  the 
letter  J;  the  other,  in  which  the  name  Elohim  is  ]) referred, 
is  denoted  similarly  by  E ;  and  the  work  formed  by  the 
combination  of  the  two  is  referred  to  by  the  double  letters 
J  E." 

d.  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers. — Traces  of  the  same 
sources  are  found  in  the  books  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers, 
with  the  exception  of  Lev.  xvii.-xxvi.,  which  seems  to  spring 
from  a  different  origin,  and  has  been  denoted  by  the  letter  11 
on  account  of  its  special  laws  of  holiness.  As  to  Deuter- 
onomy, its  structure  is  relatively  simple,  and  bears  the  marks 
of  being  the  work  of  a  single  author,  who  has  taken  as  the 
basis  of  his  discourses  partly  the  narrative  and  laws  of  JE  as 
they  exist  in  the  previous  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  partly  laws 
derived  from  other  sources,  and  who  also  towards  the  end  of 
his  work  has  incorporated  extracts  from  JE,  recording  inci- 
dents connected  with  the  death  of  Moses.  One  of  the  final 
redactors  of  the  Pentateuch  has  likewise  towards  the  end 
of  the  book  introduced  notices  of  P  relating  to  the 
same  occasion.  Finally,  the  book  of  Josue  is  said  to  be  a 
continuation  of  the  documents  used  in  the  formation  of 
the  Pentateuch.  In  c.  i.-xii.  the  sources  JE  are  mainly 
used,  while  in  the  subsequent  chapters  xiii.-xxiv.  the  work  of 
P  predominates,  being  exjoandedby  a  Deuteronomic  editor, 
who  may  be  called  D^ 

e.  Chronological  Order  of  Sources. — If  it  be  asked  what 
is  the  chronological  order  and  the  relative  position  of  the 
various  sources,  it  must  be  confessed  that  not  all  the  critic? 
are  at  one  on  these  points.     The  more  commonly  received 


128  INTRODUCTION. 

opinion  concerning  the  age  is  the  following:  J  is  placed 
between  850  and  800  B.C.,  E  about  750  B.C.,  1)  between  G95 
and  'j21  B.C.,  JED  about  GOO  B.C.;  the  Priests'  Code  follows 
the  4me  of  Ezechiel,  who  began  the  writing  of  the  ceremo- 
nial law  in  c.  xl.-xlviii.;  P'  or  11  (Lev.  xvii.-xxvi.)  was 
formed  after  Ezechiel's  manner,  and  the  historical  portion 
seems  to  have  been  added  to  H  according  to  the  narrative  of 
•IE,  but  according  to  the  conception  of  Esdras  (444  B.C.). 
The  last  redactor  compiled  out  of  all  these  documents  what 
may  be  called  the  Magna  Charta  of  Israel,  between  the 
years  444  and  280  B.C.  Hence  the  Hexateuch,  according  to 
t-jiis  view,  nuiy  be  represented  : 

J  +  E  +  D  +  P'  +  F+F 
Kje       Kd  R 

/.  The  Hexateuch  a  Development  of  Prophetic  Doctrine. — 

Ezochirl's  inlluence  on  tlio  Priests'  ("ode  has  already  been 
mentioned.  Still,  in  view  of  the  principles  which  predom- 
inate in  it,  and  in  contradistinction  to  the  Priests'  Code, 
JE  is  said  to  constitute  the  prophetical  narrative  of  the 
Hexateuch.  Deuteronomy  is  styled  a  prophetic  reformu- 
lation and  adaptation  to  new  needs  of  an  older  legislation. 
It  ftppears,  therefore,  that,  far  from  giving  a  legal  standing 
to  the  prophets,  the  Hexateuch  is  nothing  but  a  develop- 
ment of  the  prophetic  teaching  [cf.  II.  Hupfeld,  Die 
Quellen  der  Genesis,  1853;  H.  Ewald,  History  of  Israel 
(M  ed.  1864  ff.;  transl.  Longmans,  18tiD  if.);  K.  II.  Graf, 
Die  geschichtlichen  Biicher  des  A.  T.,  18GG;  Noldeke,  Die 
alttostamcntlichc  Literatur,  18GS;  Untersuchungen  zur 
Kritik  des  A.  T.,  USGO;  J.  Wellhausen,  Die  Composition 
des  Hexateuchs  in  the  Jahrbiicher  fiir  deutsche  Theologie, 
XXI.  (187G)  pp.  392-450;  531-G02;  XXII.  pp.  40:-4T9; 
Die  Composition  des  Hexateuchs  und  der  historischen 
Biichor  des  A.  T.,  1889;  Geschichte  Israol's,  I.  1878,  re- 
printed as  Prolegomena  zur  Geschic-hte  Israel's,  1883  ff., 
and  translated  as  History  of  Israel  (A.  and  C'.  Black,  1885); 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  129 

Ed,  Keiiss,  La  Bible  (transl.  with  uotes  and  Introductions), 
vol.  i.  pp.  1-271;  F.  Delitzsch,  12  Pent,  kritische  Studien 
in  the  Zeitsclirift  fur  kirchliche  Wissenschaft  iiud  kirchl. 
Leben,  1880;  Urniosiiisclies  ini  Pent.,  ibid.  1882,  pp.  113  ff., 
pp.  22G  fl.,  p.  281  tf.,  pp.  337  ff.,  p.  449  if.,  pp.  561  £[.,  also 

1888,  pp.  119  IL;  A.  Kuenen,  Bijdragen  tot  de  critick  van 
Pent,  on  Josua  in  the  Theol.  Tijdsehrift,  xi.-xviii. ;  W.  R. 
Smith,  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church,  1881, 
especially  lectures  viii.-xii.;  W.  H.  Green,  Moses  and  the 
Prophets,  New  York,  1883;  The  Hebrew  Feasts  in  their  Re- 
lation to  Recent  Critical  Hypotheses  concerning  the  Penta- 
teuch, London,  188G;  David  Castelli,  La  Legge  del  Populo 
Ebreo,  1884;  R.  Kittel,  Geschichte  der  Ilebriier,  i.  1888; 
Prof.  W.  R.  Harper,  Hebraica,  Oct.  1888,  pp.  18-73.;  July, 

1889,  i)p.  243-291;  Oct.  1889,  pp.  1-48,  etc.;  Prof.  Green, 
Hebraica,  Jan.-April,  1889,  pp.  137  ff. ;  Jan.-March,  1890, 
pp.  109,  if.;  April,  1890,  pp.  ICl  if.;  Delitzsch,  Comm.  on 
Genesis,  pp.  1-38;  A.  Dillmann,  Die  Genesis,  3d  ed.  188G; 
Ex.  und  Lev.,  1880;  Num.,  Dent,  und  Jos.,  1886;  Eb. 
Schrader's  edition  (the  eighth)  of  De  Wette's  Einleitung, 
1873;  Ed.  Reuss,  Die  Geschichte  der  Heiligen  Schriften 
A.  T.,  1881;  A.  Kuenen,  Hist.  crit.  Onderzoek  naar  het 
Ontstaan  en  de  Verzameling  van  de  Boeken  des  Ouden 
Verbonds,  2d  ed.  i,  i.  1885  (translated  under  the  title  The 
Hexateuch,  Macmillan,  1886) ;  E.  C.  Bissel,  The  Pentateuch : 
its  Origin  and  Structure,  1885;  Ed.  Riehm,  Einleitung  in 
das  A.  T.,  1889  (published  posthumously)]. 

g.  The  Historical  Hypothesis  is  Unsound. — a.  The  Com- 
position IS  Impossible.— Having  thus  far  stated,  as  far 
as  the  present  work  demands  it,  the  historical  hypothesis 
of  the  recent  school  of  criticism,  we  must  draw  the  atten- 
tion of  the  reader  to  a  few  considerations  that  seem  to  us 
to  undermine  the  very  foundation  of  our  opponents'  posi- 
tion. It  evidently  involves  a  double  statement:  First,  the 
Pentateuch  consists  of  several  documents  that  have  been 
welded  into  one;  secondly,  the  documents  thus  used  either 
are  of  prophetic  origin  or  date  from  the  time  after  the  first 


1 80  INTROD  UCriON. 

propliets  had  fulfilled  their  mission.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  even  if  the  first  of  these  statements  were  true, 
it  would  not  oppose  our  position  regarding  the  relation 
between  the  prophets  and  the  Pentateucli.  For  of  itself  it 
does  not  necessitate  tliat  we  should  deny  to  the  Pentateuch 
its  Mosaic  origin.  If  what  Wellhausen  says  is  true  regarding 
the  composition  of  the  Pentateuch,  it  is  equally  true  that 
no  other  book  was  ever  composed  in  this  manner.  In  the 
composition  of  a  work  many  sources  may  be  used  and 
many  authorities  quoted,  yet  literary  history  would  be 
searched  in  vain  for  another  patchwork  of  the  kind  in 
wiiich  half  a  dozen  or  more  books  are  cut  up  and  pieced 
together  in  so  cunning  a  mauuer.  From  a  purely  literary 
standpoint,  then,  the  story  of  the  Pentateuch,  as  told  by 
the  modern  critics,  is  not  only  unparalleled,  but  anteced- 
ently improbable  (cf.  Edersheini,  "  Prophecy  and  History," 
New  York,  1885,  p.  51). 

ft.  Language. — Besides  all  this,  neither  the  language 
and  style  nor  the  subject-matter  and  the  principles  of  the 
Pentateuch  prove  such  a  composite  nature  of  the  worTc. 
As  to  the  language,  the  alleged  proofs  for  the  documentary 
iiypothesis,  as  it  may  be  called,  rest  principally  on  the 
varied  use  of  the  divine  names  and  of  the  pronoun  of  the 
first  person  singular.  Now  both  have  been  sufficiently 
explained  without  a  recurrence  to  the  varied  authorship. 
Delitzsch  has  pointed  out  that  the  various  divine  names 
denote  God  from  various  points  of  view:  Kiohim  is  Cod  in 
as  far  as  he  creates  and  preserves  luiture;  El  Sliadday  is 
God  in  as  far  as  he  is  superior  to  the  laws  of  nature,  whom 
nature  has  to  obey  apparently  agaijist  its  own  laws — the 
God  of  miracles;  Jahveh  is  God  in  reference  to  the  super- 
natural order— the  God  of  revelation  and  of  grace.  Nor  is 
the  })roof  drawn  from  the  various  forms  of  the  })ronoun  of 
the  first  person  singular  any  more  conclusive.  It  must  be 
kept  i-n  mind,  as  lioettcher  (Lehrbuch  der  Ilebrilischeu 
Sprache,  18GG-18G8,  sect.  858)  has  maintained,  that 
"  anokhi "  and  "  aui "  occur  nearly  with  equal  frequency  in 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  131 

the  ancient  Hebrew  language,  with  this  difference,  that  the 
longer  form  is  nsed  in  quiet  and  stately  style,  Avhile  the 
shorter  word  stands  in  emphatic  and  lively  speech.  Since, 
therefore,  the  portions  that  are  said  to  make  up  the 
Priests'  Code  contain  for  the  most  part  legal  enactments 
and  other  material  of  a  kindred  character,  it  is  not  at  all 
surprising  that  the  shorter  form  of  the  pronoun  is  almost 
exclusively  used  in  them.  But  even  supposing  that  we 
could  not  thus  account  for  the  various  use  of  the  divine 
names  and  of  the  various  forms  of  the  pronoun,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  all  the  portions  of  the  Pentateuch  in 
which  a  similar  usage  of  divine  names  and  pronouns  pre- 
vails pieced  together  will  not  constitute  entire  treatises. 

y.  Style  of  the  Documents. — The  argument  of  our 
opponents,  which  is  based  on  the  difference  of  style  in  .the 
various  documents  of  which  the  Pentateuch  is  said  to  con- 
sist, is  rendered  ineffective  by  the  very  position  of  the 
learned  critics.  In  their  analysis  of  the  Pentateuch  they 
frequently  divide  not  only  chapter  from  chapter,  but  verse 
from  verse,  and  clause  from  clause,  so  that  only  minute 
fragments  remain  as  the  constituents  of  the  different  doc- 
uments. Now  no  literary  critic  can  pretend  to  judge  the 
style  of  an  author  from  scraps  and  bits,  picked  more  or  less 
at  random  from  his  work.  And  if  at  times  there  are  any 
lengthier  portions  entirely  assigned  to  any  one  author,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  critics  first  of  all  assign  the 
various  parts  of  the  Pentateuch  to  various  authors  on  ac- 
count of  the  varieties  of  style  which  they  find  in  them, 
and  then  they  cry  "  miracle  "  if  they  find  a  variety  of  style 
in  the  various  imaginary  documents.  Any  historical  work, 
even  of  the  most  recent  date,  may  according  to  this  method 
be  divided  into  various  documents  according  to  the  variety 
of  style  found  in  its  narrative,  descrijitive,  and  statistic 
chapters. 

6.  Alleged  Repetitions,  Contradictions,  etc.  — 
When  our  opponents  speak  of  re])etitions,  contradictions, 
and  parallel  passages  in  the  Pentateuch,  and  infer  from 


132  INTRODUCTION. 

their  existence  a  variety  of  authorship,  it  must  he  remem- 
bered that  if  this  difficulty  did  exist,  the  proposed  docu- 
mentary liypothesis  would  not  explain  it.  Tiie  variety  of 
redactors  involved  in  the  making  up  of  the  Pentateuch, 
as  viewed  by  the  critics,  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  over- 
looked the  above-mentioned  difficulties  any  more  than  a 
single  author  can  l)e  said  to  have  written  them.  And  if 
the  redactors  were  capable  enough  to  piece  together  the 
various  documents  in  such  a  masterly  way  as  the  docu- 
mentary hypothesis  demands,  they  were  also  able  to  omit 
or  correct  any  contradictory  statements,  and  to  expunge 
bare  repetitions  of  the  same  narrative.  A  detailed  answer 
to  the  single  passages  advanced  against  us  may  be  found 
in  any  treatise  which  professedly  considers  the  Penta- 
teuchal  question  (cf.  Ubaldi,  Introduct.,  i.  pp.  508  ff.; 
Comely,  Introduct.,  part  ii.  vol.  i.  pp.  97  ff.;  Lamy,  Comm. 
in  Gen.,  pp.  15  ff. ;  Crelier,  La  Genese,  pp.  xxi.  ff.; 
Vigouroux,  Manuel  biblique,  i.  pp.  291  ff.;  Flunk,  Inns- 
brucker  Zeitschrift,  1885,  pp.  595  ff. ;  Knabenbauer,  Stim- 
men,  1873,  iv.  pp.  3G5  ft".;  Katholik,  i.  ])p.  1G2  ff.;  Welte, 
Nachmosaisches,  pp.  82  ff. ;  Kaulen,  Einleitung,  pp.  1G7  ff. ; 
Zschokke,  Hist.  Sacra  A.  T.,  pp.  547  ff.;  Green,  Hebraica, 
1889,  pp.  137 'ff.;  1890,  pp.  109  ff.;  161  ff.;  Ilengstenberg, 
Authentic  des  Pentateuchs,  i.  pp.  181-414;  ii.  pp.  340-442; 
Keil,  Ilandbnch  der  Einleitung,  i.  2,  pp.  58  ff;  Lehrbuch 
der  Einleitung,  3d  ed.  pp.  140  ff.). 

e.  Historical  Argument. — If  our  critical  opponents 
wish  to  proceed  logically  against  us,  they  must  base  the 
whole  weight  of  their  argument  on  historical  grounds, 
showing  that  historically  speaking  the  Pentateuch  cannot 
have  antedated  the  time  of  the  prophets.  For  we  have 
shown  already  that  what  they  say  about  the  literary  analy- 
sis of  the  Pentateuch  and  its  multiple  authorship  may  be 
admitted  even  by  Catholics,  provided  they  admit  Moses  as 
the  principal  and  final  redactor.  Now  speaking  from  a 
merely  historical  i)oint  of  view,  there  are  certain. incontro- 
vertible facts  pointing  to  the  Mosaic  authorshij)  of  the 


THE  PllOPHETIC  OFFICE.  133 

Pentateuch  which  ouglit  to  be  exphiined  satisfactorily  be- 
fore the  post-Mosaic  authorship  is  maintained  us  a  thesis. 
The  testimony  of  Christ  and  of  the  apostles  ascribes  the 
Pentateuch  to  the  great  Hebrew  legislator,  and  Jewish  and 
Christian  tradition  alike  name  Moses  as  the  author  of  the 
Pentateuch  (cf.  Mark  xii.  26;  Luke  xxiv.  44;  Matt.  viii. 
4;  Mark  i.  44;  Luke  v.  14;  Matt.  xix.  8;  Mark  vii.  10; 
X.  15;  Luke  xx.  37;  John  xix.  22;  v.  45-47;  Acts  xv.  13; 
IL  Cor.  iii.  15;  Heb.  ix.  19;  Luke  ii.  22;  John  i,  17;  Acts 
xxviii.  33;  liom.  ix.  15;  I.  Cor.  ix.  9;  Heb.  vii.  14;  Mai.  ii. 
22;  Dan.  ix.  11,  13;  I.  Esdr.  iii.  2;  vi.  18;  IL  Esdr.  viii.  1 
if.;  xiii.lff.;  LPar.  xvi.40;  IL  Par.  vii.  9;  IV.  Kings  xvii. 
23;  xiv.  16;  Joseph,  de  Bello  Jud.  ii.  8,  9;  c.  App.  i.  8;  Matt. 
xix.  7;  xxii.  24;  xii.  19;  John  viii.  5;  Acts  xv.  5,  etc.). 
Besides,  the  Pentateuch  itself  bears  witness  tliat  Moses  wrote 
a  book  of  the  Law  which  he  is  said  to  have  delivered  to 
the  keeping  of  the  priests  (Ex.  xvii.  14  ;  xxiv.  4,  7; 
xxxiv.  27;  Num.  xxxiii.  1-2;  Dent.  xvii.  18  ff. ;  xxviii.  58 
-61;  xxix.  20,  21;  xxx.  10;  xxxi.  9,14).  And  again,  there 
are  unmistakable  traces  in  the  Pentateuch  of  its  having 
been  written  in  the  desert,  by  an  author  who  was  better 
acquainted  with  Egypt  and  its  conditions  than  with  Pales- 
tine and  its  geography  and  history  (cf.  Laacher,  Stim- 
men,  1873,  iv.  pp.  212-219;  Smith,  The  Pentateuch,  pp. 
280-375;  Scholz,  Aegyptol.  und  die  BB.  Mos.,  Wiirzburg, 
1818;  Vigouroux,  La  Bible  et  les  Decouvert.  mod.,  Paris, 
1879,  i.  p.  337;  ii.  p.  302;  Hengstenberg,  Die  BB.  Moses 
und  Aegypten,  Berlin,  1841;  Ebers,  Aegypten  und  die  BB. 
Moses,  Leipzig;  Contemporary  Review,  London,  1879,  p. 
758 ;  Gesenius,  Geschichte  der  Heb.  Sprache,  Leipzig,  1815 ; 
pp.  19  if.;  Jahn,  Beitriige  ap.  Bengel's  Arch.,  ii.  pp.  585  flf.; 
iii.  pp.  168  ff.).  The  numerous  passages  of  the  Pentateuch 
on  which  this  statement  rests  will  be  found  in  tbe  authors 
indicated,  and  at  the  same  time  tbere  will  be  found  a  satis- 
factory answ^er  to  all  the  difficulties  raised  against  us  by 
the  critical  school.  In  point  of  fact,  all  the  much-vaunted 
historical  difficulties  based  on  the  late  evolution   of  the 


134  INTRODUCTION. 

feasts,  the  sacrifices,  and  the  phice  of  worship  disappear 
as  soon  as  the  scriptural  account,  contained  in  the 
liistorical  books,  is  read  without  prejudice.  The  numer- 
ous references  aiul  alhisions  to  tlie  hiw  which  we  hud 
in  the  proplietic  writings  can  hardly  be  disposed  of  satis- 
factorily, unless  we  grant  the  prior  existence  of  tlie  Pen- 
tateuch: cf.,  e.g.,  Amos  ii.  lU  and  Gen.  xxv.  2G;  xxviii. 
11;  xxxii.  24;  Amos  iii.  1,  14  and  Gen.  xv.  16;  Amos  ii. 
11,  12  and  Ex.  xxvii.  2;  xxx.  10;  Lev.  iv.  7;  Amos  iv.  4,  5 
and  Numb.  vi.  1-21;  Amos  ii.  4  and  NumI).  xxviii.  3,  4; 
Deut.  xiv.  28;  Lev.  ii.  11;  vii.  12,  13;  xxii.  18-21;  Deut. 
xii.  G;  Mich.  vii.  14  and  Gen.  iii.  14;  Mich.  vii.  20  and  the 
promises  made  to  Abniliam  and  Jacob;  Mi(;h.  vi.  4,  5  and 
the  Exodus  as  happening  under  tlie  leadersliip  of  Moses, 
Aaron,  Mary,  and  also  the  fruitless  attempt  of  I'alac  to 
have  Balaam  curse  Israel.  Similar  allusions  to  the  Penta- 
teuchal  books  are  found  in  Isaias  (v.  24;  xxix.  12;  xxx.  9), 
in  Osee  (iv.  6;  ii.  15;  vi.  7;  xii.  3,  4;  xi.  1;  viii.  1,12), 
and  in  Jeremias  (compare  Jer.  ii.  6  with  Deut.  viii.  15; 
Numb.  xiv.  7,  8;  xxxv.  33,  34;  Lev.  xviii.  25-28;  Jer.  ii. 
28  with  Deut.  xxxii.  37;  iv.  4;  x.  IG;  xxx.  G;  Jer.  v.  15 
with  Deut.  xxviii.  31,48);  in  the  latter  prophet  we  find 
such  a  similarity  witli  Deuteronomy  that  several  critics 
have  nuide  him  the  author  or  at  least  tlie  ri'dador  of  that 
book.  In  one  single  passage  of  Ezccliiel,  xxii.  7-12,  there 
are  no  less  than  twenty-nine  verbal  citations  from  the  books 
of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Deuteronomy;  in  tlie  26tli  verse 
of  the  same  xxii.  chapter  there  are  not  less  than  four  refer- 
ences to  tbe  Pentateuch.  In  chapters  xvi.,  xviii.,  xx.  the 
prophet  Ezechiel  rehearses  God's  sjiccial  love  for  Israel  and 
the  people's  obstinacy  towards  God  according  to  the  narra- 
tive of  the  Pentateuch.  Not  to  multiply  similar  instances 
iiulelinitely,  it  seems  jdain  from  wliat  has  l)oen  said  that 
the  Pentateuch  has  rather  ins})ired  tlic  })roj)liets  than  that 
the  latter  have  gradually  developed  the  Pentateuch. 

C.   Osek's   Tkstimoxy. — As  if    he    had    foreseen    the 
hypothesis  of  the  critical  school  of  to-day,  the  prophet 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  135 

Osee  seems  to  settle  the  matter  under  discussion  beyond 
all  the  limits  of  any  reasonable  doubt.  Even  our  oppo- 
nents grant  that  the  prophet  lived  before  the  time  of  King 
Josias,  and  therefore  before  the  finding  of  the  law  in  the 
temi^le,  623  B.C.  Now  in  spite  of  all  this,  the  propliet 
writes,  viii.  12 :  "I  shall  write  to  him  my  manifold  laws, 
which  have  been  accounted  as  foreign."  It  is  true  that 
Reuss  explains  the  expression  "my  manifold  laws"  as 
ajiplying  to  the  prophecies,  but  he  must  surely  graiit  that 
his  interpretation  has  no  single  parallel  passage  in  the  Old 
Testament  to  sustain  it.  Even  the  instances  in  Isaias  (i. 
10;  viii.  16;  viii.  20;  xlii.  4,  21),  in  which  according  to 
some  scholars  the  word  law  is  said  to  signify  proi)hecy, 
are  by  Schrader,  as  Delitzsch  testifies,  granted  to  point  to 
an  existent  law.  Besides  all  this,  the  expression  in  Osee 
hardly  admits  such  a  reference  to  propliecios.  For  it  reads 
"my  manifold  laws,"  which  the  prophet  could  have  liardly 
said  of  his  own  prophecies.  And  since  at  his  time  the 
Pharisees  had  not  yet  imposed  their  countless  exactions  on 
the  people,  an  unwritten  law  would  have  been  rather  simple 
than  manifold,  so  that  at  that  period  there  must  have 
existed  a  written  divine  law.  It  is  inexplicable  how  all 
notice  of  such  a  written  divine  law  should  have  perished ; 
hence  we  must  infer  that  the  prophet  Osee  knew  the 
same  written  law  which  is  known  to  us,  and  which  is  pre- 
served in  the  Pentateuch. 

7.  Theology  of  the  Prophets.— a.  View  of  God.— To 
complete  our  idea  of  the  Israelite  prophets  we  must  add 
something  about  their  views  of  God  and  man,  i.e.,  about 
their  theology  and  their  anthropology.  In  general  it  may 
be  said  that  the  doctrinal  element  of  the  prophets  is  inter- 
mediate between  the  Law  and  the  Gospel,  being  in  advance 
of  the  former,  and  less  complete  than  the  latter  (cf. 
Elliott,  "  Old  Test.  Propliecy,"  New  York,  1889,  p.  44).  It 
positively  asserts  the  existence  of  one  eternal,  self-conscious, 
intelligent,  moral,  and  free  Being,  who  does  all  things 
according  to  the  purpose  of  liis  will   (Is.  xliv.  6;  xlii.  6; 


1 36  INTROD  UCTIOK. 

xliii.  10-13;  xliv.  G-8;  xl.  5,  18;  xlviii.  12;  Dim.  iii.  03; 
V.  18,  21;  Is.  vi.  3;  Habac.  iii.  3;  Is.  i.  4;  v.  19,24;  x.  IT, 
21;  xii.  G;  xvii.  T;  xxix.  19,23;  xxx.  11,12,  15;  xli.  14;  xliii. 
3,  14;  xlv.  11;  xlvii.  4;  xlviii.  17;  Os.  xi.  9,  etc.).  It 
ascribes  to  him  all  the  attributes  in  infinite  perfection,  and 
is  at  the  same  time,  more  or  less,  a  commentary  npon  the 
doctrine  of  divine  providence,  by  ascril)ing  the  future  event 
which  it  announces  to  a  dispensation  in  which  the  Creator 
is  })resent  through  the  directive  influence  of  his  power  and 
tlie  counsel  of  his  wisdom;  api)ointing  the  issues  of  futur- 
ity as  well  as  foreseeing  them;  acting  with  his  mighty 
hand  and  outstretched  arm,  seen  or  nnseen;  ruling  in  the 
kingdom  of  men,  and  ordering  all  things  in  heaven  and 
earth  (Jer.  x.  IG;  Is.  xliv.  25;  Dan.  xiv.  4;  Jer.  x.  11;  Is. 
xlv.  IS;  Jon.  i.  9;  Jer.  xxxii.  17;  Is.  xxxvii.  IG;  xlv.  18  flf. ; 
Dan.  iii.  57  ff. ;  Is.  xlv.  12;  Zach.  xii.  1;  Mai.  ii.  10;  Is. 
xliii.  7;  Jer.  x.  23;  xviii.  G;  Dan.  v.  23;  Jer.  x.  13;  Amos 
iii.  G;  Jer.  i.  10;  Is.  xxxvii.  2G,  etc.). 

h.  Divine  Names. — As  to  the  divine  names  which  the 
prophets  employ,  it  must  be  observed  that  their  ordinary 
appellation  is  Jahveh,  though  Elohim  is  not  unknown  in 
their  writings  (cf.  Is.  xliv.  10;  xlv.  22;  xlvi.  G,  9;  Os.  ii. 
1;  Jon.  iv.  2;  Mai.  ii.  10),  and  even  Elah  and  El  occur 
(cf,  Dan.  iii.  28;  vi.  8,  13;  xi.  3G).  The  expression  Jah- 
veh Zebaoth,  or  a  modification  of  it  (Jer.  v.  14;  xv.  IG; 
xxxviii.  17;  xliv.  7),  occurs  frequently,  and  is  usually  ren- 
dered the  Lord  of  hosts.  No  doubt  the  prophets  acknowl- 
edge God's  power  over  empires,  his  supreme  rule  over  the 
fate  of  battles  and  tlie  distribution  of  victory  (Os.  xiii.  9; 
Zach.  X.  5,  etc.);  in  a  few  })assages  they  most  probably 
understand  the  exj)ression  Jahveh  Zebaoth  in  the  sense  of 
Lord  of  armies  (Is.  xiii.  4;  xxxi.  4);  but  if  we  rememljer 
that  the  phrase  "host  of  the  heavens"  fre(|ucnlly  denotes 
the  multitude  of  angels  (III.  Kings  xxii.  1 9;  II.  I':ii\  xviii. 
18;  I's.  cii.  21  ;  cf.  Jos.  v.  14),  or  the  sun,  the  moon,  ami 
the  stars  (Dent.  xvii.  3;  IV.  Kings  xvii.  IG,  xxi.  3  f.;  Is. 
xxxiv.  4;  xl.  2G;  xlv.  12;  Jer.  xxxii.  22;  Dan.  viii.  10),  wo 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  137 

may  safely  infer  that  tlie  expression  Jahveh  Zebaotli  de- 
notes rather  the  Lord  of  the  heavenly  hosts  than  of  earthly 
armies.  And  far  from  confounding  the  Lord  with  the 
heavenly  bodies,  the  prophets  rather  distinguish  God 
against  the  gods  of  their  idolatrous  neighbors  who  adored 
the  hea-cenly  bodies  as  so  many  deities  (cf.  Reuss,  "  Les 
Prophetes,"  i.  p.  33;  Trochon,  Introduction,  pp.  xlix.  ff,). 

c.  The  "  Name  of  the  Lord." — The  prophets  often  emjiloy 
the  expression  "  the  name  of  the  Lord  "  to  designate  God 
himself.  We  may  refer  to  the  following  passages  as  in- 
stances of  this  usage:  Mai.  i.  6,  11;  ii.  2;  iii.  16;  Is. 
xxix.  23;  lii.  51;  Ivi.  6;  Jer.  xii.  16;  xxxiv.  16;  Bar.  ii.  32; 
Ezech.  XX.  39;  xliii.  7,  8.  The  "  name  of  the  Lord  "  in  this 
meaning  receives  all  the  divine  attributes;  it  is  holy,  sub- 
lime, great,  dreadful,  worthy  of  praise,  eternally  blessed, 
forever  glorious  (Is.  Ivii.  15;  Ezech.  xxxvi.  20;  xxxiv.  7,  25; 
xliii.  7;  Am.  ii.  7;  Is.  lii.  4;  Ezech.  xxxvi.  23;  Mai.  i.  11; 
i.  14;  Dan.  iii.  52;  iii.  26).  Oftener  still  the  prophets  use 
the  divine  name  to  signify  God's  power  in  the  world,  his 
activity,  the  revelation  by  means  of  which  he  has  communi- 
cated with  men  (Is.  xxvi.  8).  Again,  the  name  of  God  is 
identified  with  his  sanctity  (Ezech.  xxxix.  7;  xliii.  7,  8; 
xxxvi.  22  ff. ;  xx.  14  f . ;  xxxix.  25;  Is.  Ix.  9),  and  in  other 
passages  Avitli  his  majesty,  his  dignity  and  glory,  his  saving 
power,  his  goodness  and  mercy,  and  the  authority  with 
which  be  endows  his  messengers  (Is.  lix.  19;  Dan.  ix.  15; 
Jer.  xxxii.  20;  Bar.  ii.  11;  Dan.  iii.  26,  34,  43,  52;  Is. 
xlviii.  9;  Ezech.  xx.  9,  14,  22;  Jer.  xiv.  21;  xxxvi.  21;  Is. 
Ixiii,  12,  14;  xii.  4;  xxiv.  15;  xxv.  1;  Jer.  xiv.  7;  Ezech.  xx. 
44;  Jer.  xx.  9;  xliv.  16;  Dan.  ix.  6;  Jer.  xiv.  14;  xxiii.  25; 
xxix.  9,  21,  23). 

(J.  Mystery  of  the  Holy  Trinity. — At  the  same  time,  the 
Trinity  of  persons  is  at  least  ol)Scurely  implied  in  the  pro- 
phetic writings.  Emmanuel,  the  child  of  the  Virgin,  is 
to  be  the  Wonderful,  Counsellor,  mighty  God,  Prince  of 
peace,  Father  of  eternity,  and  the  Son  of  God  (Is.  vii.  14; 
ix.   6,  7;  xlii.   1;  Mich.  v.   1,  5).     In  other  passages  the 


138  INTIiODVCriON. 

prophets  speak  about  tlie  K{)irit  of  the  Lord,  to  whom  they 
attribute  intellect  anil  will,  and  therefore  personality. 
This  spirit  speaks  to  Ezechiel,  resuscitates  the  dead  bones, 
acts  on  the  Cherubim,  fills  the  prophet  Micheas  with 
strength,  and  is  predicted  to  be  poured  out  upon  all  flesh 
(Ezech.  i.  4-28;  ii.  2-9;  xxxvii.  9-14;  Mich.  iii.  8;  Joel  ii. 
28,  29).  In  other  passages  of  the  prophetic  writings  the 
Trinity  seems  to  l)e  indicated  still  more  clearly.  Tlius  the 
Lord  announces  that  lie  has  put  his  s})irit  upon  liis  servant 
(Is.  xlii.  1) — a  passage  necessarily  implying  three  dilTerent 
persons.  Again  (Is,  xlviii.  IG)  we  read:  "  From  the  time 
before  it  was  done,  I  was  there,  and  now  the  Lord  God  hath 
sent  me  and  his  spirit."  Jesus  too  applies  to  himself  the 
words  of  Isaias  (Ixi.  1) :  "  The  spirit  of  the  Lord  is  upon 
me:  wherefore  he  hath  anointed  me  to  preach  tiie  gospel 
to  the  poor,  he  hath  sent  me  to  heal  the  contrite  of  heart, 
to  preach  deliverance  to  the  captives,  and  sight  to  the 
blind,  to  set  at  lil)crty  them  that  are  bruised,  to  preach  the 
acceptable  year  of  the  Lord,  and  the  day  of  reward  " 
(Luke  iv.  18,  19).  Other  passages  distinguish  the  angel  of 
the  Lord,  or  the  word  of  God  according  to  a  common 
interpretation,  from  the  spirit  of  God  (Is.  Ixiii.  7-10;  Agg. 
ii.  5,  0;  Ezech.  i.  3;  Zach.  iv.  6,  etc.).  .Several  Fathers, 
such  as  St.  Ambrose  (De  Spiritu  Sancto,  iii.  21 ;  de  fide  ad 
Grat.  4),  St.  Jerome  (In  Is.  vi.  3),  St.Fulgcntius  (de  fide  acl 
Pet.  G),  Origen  (Ilom.  4),  St.  Cyril,  St.  Procopius,  St. 
Gregory  Naz.  (De  Paschate),  St.  John  Damasc,  St. 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  (c.  Eunom.  i.),  St.  Athanasius  (De  In- 
carnatione,  c,  Arian,  n.  10),  maititain  that  there  is  a 
vestige  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in  the  threefold  Holy  of  the 
Seraphim  as  recorded  by  the  prophet  Isaias  (vi.  3). 

<'.  Prophetic  Anthropomorphism. — If  it  be  objected  that 
the  frequent  antiiro]H)morphisms  of  the  prophetic  writings 
arc  signs  of  their  low  and  imperfect  idea  of  God,  it  must 
1>('  renicmbcrcd  that  they  could  not  have  spoken  differently 
had  tliey  wished  to  do  so.  The  language  they  used  was 
not   cajjablc   of   expressing   abstract   and    highly  spiritual 


THE  PROrilETIC  OFFICE.  139 

ideas  except  by  image  and  metaphor.  Many  of  the  meta- 
phorical expressions  of  tlie  prophetic  writings  are  used  even 
to-day  without  on  that  account  testifying  that  our  ideas  of 
God  are  low  and  material.  Even  we  speak  of  the  arm  of 
God,  of  his  eyes,  his  anger  and  justice  and  mercy;  nor 
can  we  reasonably  expect  the  prophets  to  be  more  in  ad- 
vance of  their  time  in  purely  scientific  matters,  such  as  the 
shape  and  form  of  the  earth,  the  constitution  of  matter, 
the  theory  of  the  stars.  In  all  these  points  they  naturally 
speak  as  the  men  of  their  day  spoke ;  for  the  spirit  of  God 
did  not  insj)ire  them  in  order  to  advance  the  world  in  the 
sphere  of  science,  but  to  instruct  the  human  race  in  the 
knowledge  of  salvation  (cf.  Reuss,  Les  Prophetes,  i.  jip. 
29  ft.\  Zschokke,  Theologie  der  Propheten  des  altcn  Testa- 
mentes,  Freiburg,  1877;  Scholz,  Handbuch  der  Theologie 
des  alten  Bundes  im  Lichte  des  neuen,  Regensburg,  18G2; 
Delitzsch,  Die  biblisch-prophetische  Theologie,  Leipzig, 
1845;  Ohler,  Theologie  des  alten  Testaments,  Tuebingcn, 
1873;  Haag,  Theologie  biblique,  Paris,  1870;  Schultz,  Alt- 
testamentliche  Theologie,  Frankfurt,  18G9;  Duhm,  Die 
Theologie  der  Propheten,  Bonn,  1875). 

8.  Anthropology  of  the  Prophets. — a.  General  Out- 
line.— As  to  the  prophetic  anthropology,  man  is  created  by 
God,  has  a  common  origin,  is  endowed  with  reason,  and 
is  capable  of  attaining  sanctity.  Though  man  can  make 
progress,  he  cannot  save  himself,  but  is  subject  to  the  rule 
and  law  of  God,  to  whom  he  owes  homage  and  worship. 
The  Decalogue  determines  man's  obligation  to  his  fellow- 
men.  But  by  this  alone  man  cannot  be  saved;  faith  and 
hope  in  God  are  absolutely  necessary  to  salvation.  If  man 
has  sinned  he  must  repent  in  order  to  regain  God's  grace, 
and  without  penance  the  sinner's  destruction  is  inevitable 
(Mai.  ii.  10;  Is.  i.  18;  Ezech.  xii.  2;  Is.  ii.  3,  4.  5;  Jer.  ii. 
22;  xiii.  23;  Os.  xiii.  9;  Is.  i.  19,  20;  Ezech.  xviii.  4,  5,  9; 
xxxiii.  11-1 G;  Dan.  iv.  34,  35;  Is.  Ix.  G,  7;  Mai.  i.  11;  iii- 
10;  Ilabac,  ii.  4;  Is.  xxvi.  3,  4;  Is.  Iv.  7;  Ezech.  xxxvi.  31; 
XX.  43). 


1 40  INTROD  UCriON. 

b.  Beginning  and  End. — Man's  begiiiTiing  and  end  are 
also  very  niimitel}'  described  ])y  tlie  })ropliets.  (Jod  gives 
the  life  of  man  and  takes  it  away.  Life  itself  is  extremely 
frail:  it  passes  away  as  the  flower  of  the  field;  men  disaji- 
pear  as  the  flies,  and  they  die  as  the  smoking  flax  is  extin- 
gnished.  Death  is  the  se])aration  of  body  and  soul;  it  is  a 
sleep  and  a  rest,  though  at  the  same  time  it  is  the  wages  of 
sin,  and  general  because  sin  is  general.  Even  the  prophets 
are  not  exempt  from  sin  or  death.  Often  death  is  repre- 
sented as  the  punishment  of  personal  sin,  so  that  it  alone 
is  able  to  appease  the  wrath  of  God.  Though  death  is 
very  bitter,  it  is  at  times  better  than  life  itself — the  recom- 
pense, as  it  may  be,  of  good  works  and  true  conversion.  An 
instance  of  God's  preserving  the  life  of  his  faithful  ser- 
vants we  find  in  the  three  youths  thrown  into  the  fiery 
furnace.  Personifications  of  death  also  occur  in  the  pro- 
phetic writings:  it  has  hands,  penetrates  into  the  house  by 
any  opening,  sends  desolation  through  the  land,  is  a?  insa- 
tiable as  are  the  barbarian  devastators  of  the  civilized 
world.  Metaphorically  death  denotes  sin,  and  in  this 
manner  the  sijiner's  conversion  is  symbolized  by  the  resur- 
rection (Is.  xxxix.  12,  13;  xxxi.  1,  3;  xl.  6;  xxxvii.  27; 
Ixiv.  5;  ii.  22;  li.  12;  li.  G,  8;  xliii.  17;  Jer.  xv.  9;  Is.  liii. 
12;  Lam.  ii.  12;  Bar.  ii.  17;  Is.  xvii.  10;  Jer.  iv.  10;  Jon. 
ii.  G;  Jer.  iv.  31;  Jon.  iv.  8;  Is.  xxxviii.  17;  Jon.  iv.  2; 
Jer.  xviii.  18;  Jer.  li.  39,  ry7;  Dan.  xii.  2;  Is.  xiv.  8,  18; 
Ivii.  1;  Ezech.  xxxi.  18;  xxxii.  21,  28,  30;  Nah.  iii.  18;  Is. 
vi.  5;  Zaeh.  i.  5;  Is.  xxii.  13,  14;  xxv.  8;  Jer.  viii.  3;  xx. 
14  if.;  Ezech.  xix.  5-9,  14-20;  xviii.  21,  22;  Dan.  iii.  SS', 
vi.  20;  xiv.  21;  Ilabac.  i.  12;  Dan.  iii.  88;  Jer.  ix.  20;  Os. 
xiii.  14:  Ilabac.  ii.  5;  Ezech.  xxxvii.  11-14;  Bar.  iii.  10,11). 

e.  Sheol. — AVhen  man's  existence  on  earth  ceases  with 
the  death  of  his  body,  then  his  soul  descends  according  to 
the  prophetic  writings  down  into  Sheol.  Whether  we 
derive  the  word  Sheol  from  "  sha'al  "  (to  ask),  or  from 
"shaal  "  (to  dig),  is  of  little  consequence.     In  the  one  case 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  141 

the  meaning  of  tlie  word  agrees  with  the  prophetic  idea 
of  Sheol's  insatiability;  in  the  other  it  gives  the  equally 
prophetic  idea  of  Sheol's  being  the  world  below,  the  land 
of  the  lower  world,  whose  inhabitants  are  called  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  dust.  At  times  the  word  Bor  is  used  instead 
of  Sheol;  but  it  too  has  the  meaning  of  ditch,  abyss. 
The  older  prophets  place  Sheol  in  opposition  to  the  land 
of  tlie  living;  they  consider  it  as  a  prison  surrounded  by 
walls  and  gates,  and  furnished  with  bolts.  Often  it  is  only 
another  expression  for  death.  Being  essentially  a  subter- 
raneous place,  or  a  ditch  into  which  man  descends,  in 
which  he  lies  down,  and  whence  he  can  be  drawn  forth, 
Sheol  is  often  opposed  to  the  sphere  of  light :  it  is  the  land 
of  darkness,  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death,  the  place  of 
obscurity.  It  has  been  thought  that  the  state  of  the  soul 
in  Sheol  bears  analogy  to  the  state  of  the  body  in  the 
grave — that,  in  other  words,  it  suffers  the  effects  of  the 
anger  and  the  judgment  of  God.  Others,  on  the  contrary, 
see  in  Sheol  the  dwelling-place  of  the  Rephaim,  i.e.,  of 
those  that  slumber,  of  the  feeble  ones,  the  shades,  of  the 
dead — in  a  word,  of  those  who  have  been  separated  from 
their  bodies.  All  praise  of  God  is  interdicted  in  Sheol, 
and  only  the  most  sombre  silence  reigns  there.  All  earthly 
power  and  grandeur  is  swallowed  up  in  Sheol's  abyss;  the 
kings  of  Babylon  rest  there  in  company  with  all  those  who 
have  died  before  them.  In  the  description  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Tyre  and  of  Egypt,  Sheol  resembles  an  immense 
cemeter}^,  a  vault  holding  numberless  dead.  AVhether  the 
fate  of  all  the  dead  is  alike  in  Sheol  is  a  much  discussed 
problem;  on  this  point  as  well  as  on  the  fact  of  the  future 
resurrection  the  prophetic  doctrine  has  been  supplemented 
by  the  teaching  of  the  Gospels.  Still,  even  Isaias,  Ezechiel, 
and  especially  Daniel  have  the  idea  of  a  resurrection  of 
the  dead.  In  the  last-named  ])rophet  (xii.  2)  we  read: 
"And  many  of  these  that  sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth 
shall  awake,  some  unto  life  everlasting,  and  others  unto 


1 42  INTRO  D  UCTION. 

rcproiich,  to  see  it  always  "  (Is.  v.  14;  Ilabac.  ii.  5;  Is.  xiv 
15,  19;  xxiv.  22;  xxxviii.  18;  Ezech.  xxvi.  20;  xxxi.  14,  16 
xxxii.  18,24,25,29,  30;  Is.  xxvi.  19;  Ezech.  xxvi.  20;  xxxii 
18,  24;  xliv.  23;  Ezech.  xxxi.  11, 16, 18;  xxvi.  20;  xxxi.  14 
Is.  xxxviii.  10,   11;  xiv.   15;  xxxviii.  18;    v.   14;  xiv.   19 
p]zech.  xxxii.  23;  xxvi.  20;  xxxi.  14,  15,  16;  xxxii.  18,  21 
24-30;  xxxii.  19;  Bar.  iii.  19;  Is.  xxxviii,  17,18;  Jer.  xiii 
16;  Lam.  iii.  6;  Is.  xxiv.  22;  Zach.  ix.  11  :  Is.  xxxviii.  10 
Amos  ix.  2;  Is.  v.  14;  Habac.  ii.  5;  Is.  xxxviii.  17;  xiv.  9 
10;  xxvi.  14,  19;  Bar.  ii.  17;  Is.  xxxviii.  18,  19;  xiv.  10,  11 
Ixiii.   16;  Ezech.  xxvi.  20;  xxxi.  14-18;    xxxii,  18-32;  Is. 
xxvi.   19;  Ezecli.  xxxvii.;  Os.   xiii.    14;   cf.    Buttcher,  De 
inforis,  rcbusque  post  mortem  futnris  ex    llcbra^orum   et 
rir;ecorum  opinioiiibus,  Dresd.  1846;   Oliler,  Veteris    'I'cs- 
tamenti   sententia  de    rebus   post  mortem   fiituris,   1844; 
Ilahn,  De  spe  immortalitatis  sub  Veteri  Testameiito  grada- 
tim    exculta,    1846;    H.    Schultz,   Veteri    Testamento   de 
liominis  immortalitate  sententia,  1860;  T.  II.  Martin,  La 
vie  future,  3d  ed.,  Paris,  1870;  Ilalevy,  Comtes  rendus  de 
TAcademie  des  Inscrip.  et  B.  Lettres,  1873,  pp.  124-146; 
Mgr,  Ereppel,  (Evres  polemiques,  Paris,  1874;  Vigouroux, 
La  Bil)le  et  les  Decouv,  modern.,  1st  ed.  ii.  pp.  ;)91-4()4; 
Kohrbacher,  Ilistoire  de  I'Kglise,  ed.  Palme,  i.  pp.  543  IT,; 
Amelineau,  Contemporain  du  ler.  mars  1883). 

lieview. — The  teaching  of  the  pro})hetic  books  is  there- 
fore, as  has  been  stated,  midway  between  tlie  Law  and  the 
Gospel.  It  explains  especially  the  principles  of  personal 
sanctity  better  than  they  are  set  forth  in  the  Pentateuch. 
The  prophets  do  not  promise  any  merely  temporal  advan- 
tage or  threaten  any  merely  temporal  punishment  for  the 
observance  or  non-ol>servanee  of  the  law;  their  promises 
and  threats  regard  mostly  spiritual  goods  and  the  future 
life  It  is  true  that  the  purely  ceremonial  precepts  are 
not  in  very  high  esteem  with  the  prophets;  but  since  the 
law  had  established  the  sui)reme  jirinciplc  to  love  (lod 
with  all  our  heart  and  all  our  soul,  with  our  whole  strength 


THE  PROPHETIC  OFFICE.  143 

and  our  whole  mind,  tlie  propliets  could  do  nothing  else 
than  throw  new  light  on  the  explanation  of  this  law  with- 
out attempting  to  add  to  its  extent.  Thus  the  prophets 
really  acknowledge  the  Mosaic  code  of  laws  with  all  its 
rules  and  prescriptions,  and  like  him  whom  they  predicted 
in  word  and  act,  they  did  not  destroy  the  law,  but  fulfilled 
the  same. 


144  INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  WRITINGS  OF  THE  PROPHETS. 

1.  The  Prophetic  Writings  ake  inspired.— Tlie  first 
clianicteristic  of  tlie  proi)lietic  writings  is  their  inspiration. 
Not  to  iidthice  tirgunients  tlnit  may  be  derived  from  the 
nature  of  pi'opheey,  the  propliets  themselves  insist  on  the 
fact  that  they  were  inspired  by  God  or  commanded  to 
write  down  tlieir  divinely  received  comnuinicatiuiis.  Thus 
Isaias  (viii.  1)  tells  us:  "And  tlie  J^oi'd  said  to  nie:  Take 
thee  a  great  buok,  and  write  in  it  with  a  man's  i)en."  Again 
(xxx.  8),  the  i)i'ophet  is  bidden:  ''Now  therefore  go  in  and 
write  for  them  n])on  bo.x,  and  note  it  diligently  in  a  book, 
and  it  shall  be  in  the  latter  days  for  a  testimony  for  ever." 
Jeremias  too  received  divine  commands  to  write  down  his 
divinely  inspired  intuitions.  Ilis  own  testimony  (xxx.  2) 
is  unmistakable:  *'  Thus  saith  the  Lord,  the  (Jod  of  Israel, 
saying:  Write  thee  all  the  words  that  I  have  spoken  to 
thee  in  a  book."  And  a  few  chapters  later  on  the  divine 
order  is  still  more  emphatic  (xxxvi.  2):  "Take  thee  a  role 
of  a  book,  and  thou  shalt  write  in  it  all  the  Avords  that  I 
have  spoken  to  thee  against  Israel  and  Juda,  and  against 
all  the  nations:  from  the  day  that  I  spoke  to  thee,  from 
the  days  of  Josias  even  to  this  day."  Similar  words  are 
met  in  llabacuc  (ii.  2):  *' And  the  Lord  answered  me  and 
said:  Write  the  vision  ami  make  it  jjlain  upon  tallies:  that 
he  that  readeth  it  may  run  over  it."  Ami  though  we  have 
not  the  exjdicit  words  of  (Jod  in  the  case  of  all  the  jiartic- 
ular  jtrophetic  books,  testifying  to  their  divine  insi)iration, 
our  statement  is  nevertheless  true  beyond  all  reasonable 
doubt.     Or  did  not  the  prophets  fullil  ])art  of  their  super- 


THE   WRITINGS  OF  THE  PROPHETS.  145 

natural  calling  by  writing  ?  But  they  could  fulfil  no  part 
of  their  office  without  the  assistance  of  the  divine  inspira- 
tion. And  again,  if  God  had  not  inspired  the  whole  book 
of  Isaias,  e.g.,  how  could  the  prophet  call  it  the  book  of  the 
Lord  ?  (cf.  Is.  xxxiv.  IG;  Ezech.  iii.  25.)  It  is  for  this  very 
reason  too  that  the  Fathers  compare  the  jirophets  to  musi- 
cal instruments  which  the  Holy  Ghost  plays  upon,  or  to 
a  most  faithful  mirror  representing  its  object  with  the 
greatest  minuteness  (St.  Athenagoras,  Legat.  pro,  Christ., 
9.  M.  6,908;  St.  Justin,  Cohort,  ad  gent.  8.  M.  G,  25G;  St. 
Basil,  In  Is.  prooem.  3.  M.  30,  122). 

2.  Spoken  and  Merely  Written  Prophecies.  —  It 
nnist,  however,  be  noted  that  not  all  the  single  parts  of  the 
jn'o^^hetic  books  have  been  written  in  the  same  manner: 
some  were  delivered  orally  previous  to  their  writing;  others 
were  put  in  writing  without  having  ever  been  spoken  in 
jniblic.  To  this  second  class  belong  all  those  portions  in 
Avliich  there  is  no  trace  of  an  oratorical  form,  such  as  the 
book  of  Jonas,  Is.  xxxvi.-xxxix.,  Jer.  xxxvi.-xliii.,  Iii.,  Dan. 
i.-vi.,  all  tlie  introductory  and  explanatory  remarks  which 
accompany  the  oratorical  portions,  letters  and  all  matter  of 
a  similar  character, e.g.,  Jer.  xxix,.  Bar.  vi.,  Is.  vi.,  Dan.  vii. 
ff. ;  all  those  parts  in  which  we  have  indeed  the  oratorical 
form,  but  whose  subject-matter  is  entirely  unfit  for  public 
delivery,  such  as  the  second  part  of  Isaias  xl.-lxvi.,  the 
last  chapters  of  Ezecliiel,  xl.-xlviii.,  the  projihecies  con- 
cerning the  future  fate  of  the  gentile  nations:  Nah.,  Is. 
xiii.  ff.,  Jer.  xlvi.  ff. 

3.  Abbreviated  Prophecies.— Those  parts  of  the  pro- 
2)hetic  books  which  repeat  speeches  previously  delivered  in 
jniblic  do  not  always  adhere  to  the  letter  of  the  matter 
delivered.  Jeromias,  e.g.,  testifies  that  he  received  the 
command  to  write  all  that  the  Lord  liad  spoken  to  him 
from  tlie  days  of  the  king  Josias  even  to  tliis  day  (xxxvi.  2); 
still,  it  is  quite  clear  that  he  cannot  have  literally  com- 
mitted to  writing  all  his  public  instructions  delivered  dur- 
ing the  space  of  twenty-three  years.     The  same  compendi- 


14G  INTRODUCTION. 

ous  inaTiiier  of  writing  is  i)]()vetl  by  Kii:il)eii]);uu'r  (Coiiim.  in 
Pro.  Minor,  i.  '-10)  to  exist  in  the  prophet  Osee.  The  very 
title  of  tlie  hook  sliows  this,  signifying  us  it  does  the  length 
of  time  (luring  which  the  events  recorded  by  the  prophet 
took  place.  Then  the  concise  and  heavy  style  of  the  book 
renders  it  almost  evident  that  its  contents  cannot  have 
been  literally  delivered  to  the  peo])le,  who  would  not  have 
been  able  to  understand  such  concise  language.  It  seems 
certain  that  all  the  Minor  l'ro})hets  followed  this  manner 
of  writing,  expressing  their  previous  discourses  in  the  most 
concise  and  orderly  manner.  That  Jeremias  wrote  a  com- 
pendium, we  have  already  pointed  out;  Isaias  (ii.-v.)  fur- 
nishes another  instance  of  a  Greater  Prophet  presenting  a 
summary  of  his  })roplu'tic  activity  during  a  definite  period 
of  time. 

4,  Titles  of  the  Prophetic  Books.— It  follows  from 
what  has  been  hitherlo  said  that  tlie  ])r()})hetic  style  is 
more  polished  and  ornate  than  is  usually  found  in  speeches 
delivered  ex  tempore.  But  from  the  fact  that  the  sjjoken 
words  of  the  prophets  have  undergone  such  an  emendation 
of  style  and  language,  it  does  not  follow  that  we  must, 
therefore,  assume  the  existence  of  one  or  more  so-called 
**  redactors."  On  the  other  hand,  not  all  the  proi)hetic 
books  have  been  composed  with  the  same  care.  Jonas 
among  the  older  prophets,  and  Ezechiel,  Daniel,  Aggeus, 
and  Zacharias  among  the  later  ones,  begin  their  books  with- 
out any  title,  after  the  manner  of  the  historians.  In  the 
case  of  Jonas  and  Daniel  such  a  jn'oceeding  was  to  be  ex- 
pected on  account  of  the  historical  character  of  their  writ- 
ings. The  other  three  pro])liets  omitted  the  title  perhaps 
to  indicate  that  the  conditions  of  their  times  dillered  from 
those  of  their  predecessors  in  the  ])rophetic  ottlce.  Isaias 
and  Abdias  call  their  books  "  Vision,"  Jeremias,  Osee,  Joel, 
Mielieas,  and  Sophonias  call  them  "  the  Word  of  the  Lord;" 
Amos  in  a  manner  joins  the  preceding  two  titles:  "the 
words  of  Amos  .  .  .  which  he  saw;"  Xahum,  llabacuc, 
and  Malachias  express  in  the  title  of  their  books  both  their 


THE   WRITINGS  OF  THE  PROPHETS.  147 

divine  origin  and  their  characteristic  subject-matter:  "tlie 
burden  of  Ninive,  the  book  of  the  vision  of  Naliuni;" 
"  the  burden  that  Ilabacuc  the  prophet  saw,"  tlie  burden 
of  the  word  of  tlie  Loi'd  to  Israel  by  the  hand  of  Mala- 
chias." 

5.  The  Prophetic  Style. — Since  the  prophets  were  sent 
to  confirm  by  means  of  divinely  inspired  sermons  and  ex- 
hortations the  pious  in  the  law  and  to  convert  the  sinners, 
thus  preparing  all  for  the  new  Christian  dispensation,  it  is 
to  be  expected  that  they  should  write  in  an  oratorical  style. 
And  the  near  affinity  existing  between  the  oratorical  and 
the  poetical  style,  as  even  Cicero  has  observed  (De  orat. 
16),  renders  it  antecedently  probable  that  the  prophetic 
style  should  be  an  a2)prouch  to  the  style  of  the  ])oet.  I^ie 
difference  between  the  mere  prose  style  and  the  prophetic 
style  properly  so  called  is  perhajis  best  illustrated  from  the 
writings  of  the  prophets  themselves,  i.e.,  by  a  com^iarison 
between  those  passages  in  which  they  write  as  mere  his- 
torians and  those  others  in  which  they  address  the  people 
with  exhortations,  threats,  or  promises  (cf.  Is.  xxxvi.- 
xxxix.;  Jer.  xxvi.;  xxxvi.-xli.,  etc.).  Poetical  metaphors, 
allegories,  parables,  and  even  tlie  parallelism  of  members  may 
be  found  throughout  the  prophetic  writings.  This  same 
peculiarity  has  been  observed  by  Kibera  (Comm.  in  1.  duo- 
decim  proph.  in  Nahum  Pra?f.),  by  C.  Vitringa  (Comm. 
in  Is.  Prolegom.  Leovardiffi,  1714,  p.  8),  and  has  been  per- 
haps exaggerated  by  Lowth  (Pra?l.  18  ff.). 

6.  Obscurity  of  the  Prophets.— Another  and  most 
important  characteristic  of  the  i)rophetic  style  is  its 
obscurity.  There  can  hardly  be  any  reasonable  doubt 
about  the  fact  of  the  obscurity.  Nearly  all  the  patristic  as 
well  as  the  more  recent  writers  who  have  made  a  special 
study  of  the  prophecies  have  complained  of  their  exegetic 
difficulties.  St.  Chrysostom  (Hom.  de  obscurit.  Proph.  M. 
56,  163),  Theophylactus  (In  Os.  prooem.  M.  126,  569),  St. 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  (In  Is.  xxvii.  13.  M.  TO,  609),  St.  Jerome 
(In  Ezecli.  xlv.  10;  in  Os.  xiv.  10;  in  Is.  xxi.  3;  in  Jer. 


148  INTRODUCTION. 

ix.  14;  xxxi.  25;  in  Nali.  ii.  1;  in  Jer.  xxi.  1;  xxv.  1;  M. 
25,470;  25,  992;  24,  19G;  24,  TG7;  24,  91G;  25,  1303;  24, 
839;  24,  8G5),  Cornelius  u  [.apide  (In  !»•  I'l'olt'g.),  Culmet 
(Prolog,  in  Proph.),  Putrizi  (J)c  interpretatione  oraculoriun 
ad  Christum  pertinentiuni  prolegomenon,  Rom«,  1853,  pji. 
1  IT.),  Keinke  (Heitrilgo,  ii.  pp.  33-92),  Vigouroux  (Maiuiel 
biblicjue,  ])p.  4GG  ff.),  Zschokke  (Theologie  der  Pi'oplieten, 
pp.  387-394),  Hengstenberg  (Christologie,  2d  ed.,  Berlin, 
185G,  iii.  2,  ])p.  180  If.),  are  some  of  the  witnesses  testifying 
to  the  obscurity  of  the  prophetic  writings.  But  we  have 
still  more  reliable  witnesses  than  the  commentators  in  the 
prophets  themselves.  In  the  very  passage  describing 
Isaias'  prophetic  mission  we  read  (Is.  vi.  9-13):  "  (Jo,  and 
thouslialt  say  to  this  people:  hearing  hear,  and  understand 
not,  and  see  the  vision  and  know  it  not.  .  .  ."'  And  later 
on  (Is.  xxix.  11),  when  the  [)ro])het  is  describing  the 
people's  future  knowledge  of  the  prophetic  writings,  he 
says:  "And  the  vision,  of  all  shall  be  unto  you  as  the  words 
of  a  book  that  is  sealed,  which  when  they  shall  deliver  to 
one  that  is  learned,  they  shall  say:  liead  this,  and  he  shall 
answer:  I  cannot,  for  it  is  sealed."  Jeremias  tells  his 
readers  that  they  shall  understand  the  counsel  of  God 
in  the  latter  day,  i.e.,  when  the  prophecies  will  have 
been  fulfilled  (Jer.  xxiii.  20;  xxx.  24).  Ezechiel  too 
(xxxiii.  33)  points  to  the  time  of  fullllment  as  the  period 
when  the  prophecies  will  be  properly  understood.  "And 
when  that  which  was  foretold  shall  come  to  pass,  for  be- 
hold it  is  coming,  then  shall  they  know  that  a  ])rophet  hath 
been  among  them.''  The  prophet  Zacharias  needs  tlie 
exjjlanation  of  an  angel  in  order  to  understand  the  pro- 
phetic symbols  which  he  has  seen  (Zach.  i.  9;  ii.  2;  iv.  4; 
V.  G,  etc.).  The  same  angelic  ministry  we  meet  in  the 
writings  of  Daniel  viii.  27  and  xii.  8  IT. ;  in  the  latter  pas- 
sage the  angel  distinctly  foretells  that  the  vision  will  re- 
main closed  till  the  time  of  its  fulfilment. 

u.  Reasons   of   Obscurity. — The   fact   of   the   jirophetic 
obscurity  being  established,  there  can  be   no  iloubt  that 


THE   WRITINGS  OF  THE  PliOPUETS  149 

many  of  the  prophecies  are  clearer  and  more  intelligible  to 
ns  than  they  were  to  the  Jews  in  the  Old  Testament,  On 
the  other  hand,  as  appears  from  the  foregoing  testimony  of 
the  Fathers  and  the  commentators,  many  of  the  biblical 
prophecies  are  still  a  mystery  for  ns.  These  may  be  re- 
duced to  three  classes:  1.  Several  have  not  yet  been  ful- 
filled, and  cannot  be  fully  understood  till  the  time  of  their 
fulfilment.  3.  Others  have  been  fulfilled,  but  are  unintel- 
ligible to  us,  because  we  are  ignorant  of  ancient  history. 
This  class  of  prophecies  has  been  made  much  more  intel- 
ligible through  the  recent  Assyriologieal  and  Egyptological 
studies  (cf.  Vigouroux,  La  Bible  et  les  Uecouvert.  modern, 
iv. ;  Brunengo,  L'impero  di  Babilonia  e  di  Ninive,  Prato, 
1885,  ii.;  Knabenbauer,  Comm.  in  proph.  minor.,  i.  pj). 
138,  295,  314,  3G2;  ii.  pp.  48,  312,  etc.;  Schrader,  Die 
Keilinschriften  und  das  A.  T.,  2d  ed.  pp.,  382-455).  3.  A 
third  class  of  prophecies  is  obscure  either  on  account  of 
the  sublime  mysteries  of  which  the  predictions  treat  or  by 
reason  of  the  manner  in  which  they  have  been  ])roposed 
by  the  prophets.  This  third  kind  of  obscurity  deserves  ,a 
word  of  explanation. 

a.  Confusion  of  Tenses. — There  is  first  of  all  a  con- 
fusion of  tenses  in  the  prophetic  writings:  what  is  future 
is  represented  as  present  or  even  as  past.  The  reasons  for 
this  kind  of  obscurity  are  manifold.  St.  Chrysostom  (c^ 
Anom.  7,  5;  in  illud:  Pater  si  possibile  est.  3.  M.  48, -704), 
St,  Augustine  (In  Ps.  xliii,  n.  5.  M.  3G,  485),  and  St.  Jerome 
(In  Is,  V.  25,  M.  24,  91)  maintain  that  the  prophets  use  the 
pastor  the  present  tense  instead  of  the  future  in  order  to 
signify  that  what  they  predict  is  as  certain  as  if  it  had  al- 
ready taken  ])lace.  But  St.  Chrysostom  (In  Cen.  i.  hom, 
10,  4.  M.  53,  85)  and  St.  Augustine  (In  Ps.  iv.  n,  6.  M.  30, 
75)  assign  another  reason  for  the  change  of  tenses  which 
seems  to  be  more  satisfactory.  Since  the  prophetic  I'evela- 
tion  was  commonly  received  in  visions,  they  say  it  is  nat- 
ural that  the  prophets  should  tell  them  as  if  they  were  now 
before  their  eyes,  or  as  if  they  had  been  previously  seen. 


loO  INTRODUCTION. 

Ik'iu'c  tlio  vivid  (lescrii)tioii  of  tlio  Virgin  conceiving  mul 
liriiigiiiii;  lorlli  ;i  son,  the  glud  Jinnouncement  tliut  ;i  child 
hiis  been  born  for  us,  ii  son  hits  been  given  to  us,  hence  too 
the  reference  to  Cyrus  as  if  he  were  u  king  of  the  pro])het's 
own  time  (cf.  Is.  vii.  14;  ix.  0;  xliv.  :38  ff.;  xl.-lxvi.; 
xxxiv.  Hi;  Knabenbuuer,  "Der  Prophet  Isaias,"  p.  455; 
Ileinke,  Jieitriige,  p.  41). 

/?.  Fragmentary  Character  of  Predictions.  —  In 
the  second  phice  must  be  noted  the  fragmentary  cliaracter 
(jf  most  of  tlic  pro})hetic  i)redictions;  for  this  too  has  given 
rise  to  divers  misinterpretations  of  the  Messianic  prophe- 
cies. Hence  it  is  that  the  Kabbinic  writers  have  taken 
occasion  to  write  about  a  double  Messias — one  covered  with 
suffering  and  another  celebrated  for  his  power  and  glory; 
one  the  son  of  Joseph,  tlie  otlu-r  the  son  of  David  and  Juda 
(cf.  Eisenmenger,  "Das  entdeckte  Judenthum,"  ii.  p[).  ?■.'() 
if.).  The  modern  rationalists  have,  on  account  of  the  frag- 
mentai'y  nature  of  the  proi)hetic  writings,  seen  contradic- 
tions between  the  Messianic  hopes  as  held  out  in  the  differ- 
ent })rophecies.  Joel,  e.g.,  is  said  to  have  expected  only  a 
Messianic  kingdom,  while  Isaias  expects  a  personal  Messijis. 
But  St.  Paul  (I.  Cor.  xiii.  !))  seems  to  have  anticipated  this 
(litHculty  when  he  says:  ''  We  know  in  i)art,  and  we  pro])h- 
esy  in  part."  St.  Chrysostom  (In  Ps.  xliv.  n.  3.  M.  55,  18T) 
sees  in  this  precisely  the  difference  between  the  Pro})het 
and  the  Evangelist — that  the  latter  tells  us  all,  while  the 
former  gives  only  a  partial  communication.  St.  Thomas 
(II.'  ii.-"'  q.  171,  a.  4)  insists  on  the  same  solution  of  the 
diniculty  which  springs  from  the  fragmentary  character  of 
tile  })r(iphecies:  "The  i)rophets  do  not  know  all  that  can  be 
proj)lu'sit'd,  but  each  one  knows  sometliing  of  it,  according 
to  liis  special  revelation  about  this  or  that  particular  point." 

y.  The  Idea  of  Prophecy  does  not  involve  Abso- 
lute Clearness. — If  the  unintelligibility  of  many  of  tlie 
prophecies  be  urged  against  us,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  proi>het  could  not  ])redi('t  a  future  event  more  clearly 
than  he  had  been  instructed  to  do.     But  absolute  clearness 


THE   WRITINGS  OF  THE  PROPHETS.  151 

is  not  required  in  prophecy  as  sncli.  All  that  is  needed  iu 
order  to  have  a  true  jn'cdicfcion  is  an  unmistakable  sign  or 
picture  of  the  future  event  in  question.  Now  a  sign  or  pict- 
ure need  not  always  represent  the  object  in  all  its  details. 
Thus  even  a  rude  sketch  may  be  said  to  represent  a  person 
or  a  thing,  though  the  thousand  little  minutiffi  which  make 
up  the  person's  countenance  or  give  exjjression  to  the  land- 
scape may  be  wanting  (cf.  Jahn-Ackermann,  Introductio 
in  V.  T.  p.  221;  Patrizi,  De  interpretatione  orac.  niessian. 
Proleg.  p.  3).  The  proi)hets  often  give  us  such  a  rough 
sketch  of  the  future  event.  If  they  were  to  do  otherwise 
two  most  serious  inconveniences  would  follow.  First, 
human  liberty  would,  at  least  apparently,  be  diminished. 
For  if  certain  historical  events,  absolutely  definite  in  their 
particulars,  were  certainly  going  to  hapj^en,  men  might  be 
tempted  to  doubt  their  own  freedom  in  bringing  them 
about.  Or,  on  the  other  hand,  men  would  have  striven 
with  all  their  might  to  render  vain  the  predictions  of  the 
prophets.  What  would  not  the  hard-hearted  Jews  have 
done  to  prevent  the  passing  away  of  the  Synagogue  into 
the  hands  of  the  Son  ?  Herod's  rage  would  have  been 
nothing  as  compared  with  their  endeavors  to  slay  the  Son 
and  his  Mother.  The  second  inconvenience  flowing  from 
too  great  clearness  of  the  prophetic  predictions  would  be  a 
lessening  of  their  apologetic  value.  For  in  such  a  case  it 
might  always  be  objected  that  the  fulfilment  had  been 
brought  about  designedly  by  the  persons  interested  in  see- 
ing  it  established  (cf.  Patrizi,  De  interpret,  oracul.  mes- 
sianic. Proleg.  p.  2;  Le  Ilir,  Etudes  bibliques,  i.  p.  82). 

d.  Absence  of  Chronological  Perspective. — One 
of  the  greatest  sources  of  prophetic  obscurity  is  the  ab- 
sence of  what  we  may  call  chronological  perspective  from 
many  of  the  prophetic  writings.  In  this  respect  the  predic- 
tions of  tlie  pro])hets  resemble  the  ])ictures  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  and  Assyrians,  so  notably  defective  in  local  per- 
spective. The  prophets  saw  the  future  events  as  we  see 
the  stars  in  the  firmament;  they  may  be  millions  of  miles 


1 52  INTROD  U(  "HON. 

distant  from  one  anotlior,  bnt  to  us  tlioy  appear  as  almost 
contiguous.  This  })erplexing  confusion  in  chronology  be- 
comes more  distressing  when  the  prophet  passes  from  type 
to  anti-type  and  returns  again  to  the  type  without  indicat- 
ing in  the  least  his  transition.  Thus  Isaias  blends  into 
one  the  coming  of  the  Messias  and  the  destruction  of 
Babylon  (Is.  x.,  xi.);  the  redemption  of  the  Jews  from  the 
Babylonian  captivity  and  the  redemption  of  man  from  sin 
(xl.-lxvi.),  the  complete  destruction  of  Babylon  and  its  first 
conquest  by  the  Persians  (xiii.,  xix.).  The  manner  in  which 
the  type  and  its  anti-type  are  at  times  blended  into  one  is 
thus  described  by  Le  Ilir  (l^ltndes  bibliques,  i.  pp.  81  ff.) : 
"  Very  often  there  is  only  one  meaning  in  the  prophecies, 
but  an  extended  one,  and  the  division  is  only  apparent  in 
the  particular  applications  one  can  make  of  it.  At  other 
times  the  text  sets  two  objects  made  after  the  same 
pattern  before  our  eyes,  and  outlines  them  at  the  same 
time.  Imagine  two  palaces  of  une(pial  dimensions,  but 
offering  nearly  the  same  arrangement  of  rooms,  courts, 
corridors,  etc.  The  smaller,  one  is  nearer  to  you,  and  so 
situated  that  if  it  wore  trans})arent  as  crystal  your  eye 
would  catch  with  one  glance  the  outlines  and  the  shape  of 
both.  If,  on  the  contrary,  this  transparency  were  veiled, 
unequal  or  intermittent,  you  would  need  several  combi- 
nations to  com2)lete  in  your  mind  the  picture  of  the  larger 
edifice,  but  you  could  not  doubt  about  its  existence  nor 
about  its  principal  features.  Thus  it  is  with  a  prophecy 
having  a  double  object.  The  nearer  object  seems  at  times 
to  vanish  in  order  to  let  the  more  important  and  greater 
event- which  occupies  tjie  background  shine  through  in  all 
its  brilliaticy.  At  other  times  tlie  iiearer  outlines  are  the 
darker  ones,  and  llicy  partially  conceal  those  behind.  But 
our  reason,  following  the  li-ad  of  analogy,  easily  ivstores  to 
each  of  the  two  objects  what  the  eye  discovers  only  con- 
fiise(]|y"  (cf.  Ifcinke,  I'citriigc,  ii.  p.  I".*;  Vigonronx,  Ma- 
nuel biblique,  ii.  p.  -JtlS). 

e.  Cni{ON()L()(ii('AL  A((  ri{A('v   is  not  always  want- 


TUE  WRITINGS  OF  THE  PROPHETS.  163 

IXG. — Still  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  prophetic 
predictions  are  always  absolutely  indistinct  in  point  of 
chronology.  Thus  Isaias  clearly  announces  that  Ephraim 
will  cease  to  be  a  people  after  sixty-tive  years  (vii.  8),  the 
glory  of  Moab  will  vanish  after  tln-ee  years  (xvi.  14);  Egypt 
and  Ethiojiia  too  have  a  period  of  three  years  assigned 
them  (xx.  3) ;  the  glory  of  Cedar  -vvill  be  taken  away  in  one 
year  (xxi.  IG;  cf.  xxiii.  15;  xxix.  1;  xxxii.  10;  xxxviii.  5; 
Jer.  XXV.  12;  xxvii.  7;  xxix.  10;  xxviii.  16;  Ezech.  xxiv.  1; 
xxix.  11;  Dan.  ix.  25  ft'.;  Zschokke,  1.  c,  p.  390).  Who- 
ever grants  God  the  power  of  foreseeing  the  future,  need 
not  seek  for  artificial  ways  of  explaining  all  such  definite 
jDredictions.  They  have  not  been  forged  after  the  event 
had  taken  place,  nor  are  they  later  glosses  added  to  the 
text;  nor,  again,  have  their  numbers  a  merely  symbolic 
meaning.  Where  we  are  unable  to  trace  the  exact  fulfil- 
ment according  to  the  letter  of  the  prophecy,  we  must  im- 
pute the  defect  to  our  ignorance  of  history,  and  not  to  the 
falsity  of  the  proplietic  prediction.  In  other  passages  tlie 
prophets  give  no  notice  at  all  of  the  time  at  which  the 
event  foretold  will  occur.  Instances  of  this  we  fiiul  in  Is. 
i.  24;  ii.  9  ft'.;  iii.  IG  ff.,  etc.  Then  again,  the  chrono- 
logical determination  of  the  prophetic  predictions  is  vague, 
so  that  they  diff'er  little  from  the  preceding  class.  Such  is 
the  case  in  Is.  xvii.  4;  xviii.  7;  xix.  IG;  Jer.  iii.  IG;  ii.  2; 
xxx.  8;  Ezech.  xxxiii.  8,  etc.  But  even  in  those  prophe- 
cies in  which  the  chronological  order  of  type  and  anti-type 
has  been  blended  into  one,  the  Jews  could  distinguish  the 
former  from  the  latter.  As  now  we  can  to  some  extent 
distinguish  in  the  last  prophecies  of  Jesus  what  refers  to 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  from  what  refers  to  the  end 
of  the  world  by  looking  at  the  history  of  the  former  event, 
so  could  the  Jews  compare  the  historic  type  with  tlio 
prophecy,  and  tluis  learn  wliich  particulars  of  tlie  i)redic- 
tion  referred  to  tlie  anti-type.  In  other  instances  the  gap 
of  chronology  in  the  one  prophet  is  filled  out  by  clearer 


1  tA  iNTIiOD  UCTION. 

determinations  of  another.  An  instance  of  this  we  see  in 
Is.  xiii.  22,  as  compared  with  Jer.  xxv.  12. 

C.  Proi'Hf:tic  Imagery. — Since  the  prophets  were  mostly 
ilhi mined  by  visions,  the  use  of  imagery  is  very  frequent  in 
their  predictions.  For  tliey  do  not  speak  of  the  future  in 
abstract  terms,  but  commonly  by  means  of  the  same  images 
they  themselves  had  seen.  Now  such  prophetic  images 
are  either  types  or  they  are  symbols.  A  word  must  be  said 
of  each  in  order  that  the  obscurity  resulting  from  this 
nianncr  of  speech  may  be  removed. 

1.  7'//c  Typical  Sense. — The  typical  sense  of  Scripture 
in  general  is  the  meaning  the  Holy  (J host  intends  to  con- 
vey by  means  of  the  matter  narrated.  It  is  distinct  from 
the  literal  meaning,  because  the  latter  is  conveyed  by  the 
words  themselves,  while  the  former  is  expressed  by  the 
tilings  signified  l)y  the  words.  Tiie  typical  meaning  is  also 
called  the  spiritual,  the  mystical,  the  allegorical.  The 
persons  or  things  that  God  in  his  providence  has  or- 
dained to  signify  the  future  events  form  the  foundation 
of  the  typical  sense.  It  follows  from  this  that  oidy  he 
who  has  the  free  disposition  of  the  future  can  employ  a 
type  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word.  For  him  alone  have 
the  present  persons  or  things  that  connection  with  the 
future  which  the  foetus,  e.g.,  in  the  course  of  its  develop- 
ment, has  Avith  the  fully  organized  body.  The  persons 
and  things  that  God  has  thus  assumed  to  signify  future 
persons  or  things  are  called  by  St.  Paul  types,  exemi)lars, 
shadows,  allegories,  parables;  while  tlie  persons  or  things 
thus  signified  are  named  l)y  St.  Peter  "anti-types,"  though 
St.  Paul  gives  this  name  to  the  i.jrmer  class  also  (Rom.  v. 
14;  I.  Cor.  x.  G;  Ileb.  viii.  5;  Gal  iv.  24;  Ileb.  ix.  9;  I. 
Pet.  iii.  21 ;  Ileb.  ix.  24).  The  typical  sense  of  Scripture 
thus  explained  is  threefold  :  it  either  ])roposes  certain  dog- 
mas of  belief,  commonly  regarding  tlie  future  Mossias,  and 
then  we  have  the  prophetic  or  allegorical  types;  or  it  de- 
scribes the  objects  of  our  ho])e,  especially  concerning  the 
future  life  in  heaven,  and    this  is  elTected  by  means  of 


THE   WRITINGS  OF  THE  PROPHETS.  155 

anagogic  types;  or,  finally,  it  shows  us  what  we  are  bound 
to  do  by  means  of  the  so-called  tropological  types  (cf. 
Gal.  iv.  24;  Wisd.  xvi.  17;  Apoc.  xxi.  3).  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  noted  that  there  is  a  marked  difference  between 
the  typical  and  the  allegorical  or  spiritual  meaning  of  the 
Scriptures:  the  latter  terms  are  used  by  theological  writers 
of  all  the  interpretations  that  are  not  strictly  literal, 
while  the  first  term  has  its  own  specific  sense.  In  order 
to  have  this  specific  character,  the  type  must  fulfil  these 
three  conditions:  1.  It  must  have  a  projier  and  absolute 
historical  existence,  entirely  independent  of  the  anti-type. 
2.  It  should  not  have  a  natural  and  essential  reference  to 
its  anti-type.  3.  God  himself  must  have  referred  the  type 
to  its  anti-type  by  means  of  a  positive  ordination.  It  is 
l)eyond  all  dispute  that  there  are  such  types  in  the  Script- 
ures: for  proof  we  may  refer  to  Rom.  v.  14;  Gal.  iv.  24; 
Col.  ii.  17;  Heb.  ix.  8,  9;  Ileb.  vii.;  i.  5;  John  xix.  3G; 
Patrizi,  p.  119. 

2.  Allegorical  Types. — For  the  present  we  are  princi- 
pally concerned  about  the  prophetic  or  the  allegorical 
types.  According  to  Eusebius  (H.  E.  i.  3.  M.  20,  72)  the 
prophetic  types  of  the  Old  Testament  principally  refer  to 
the  triple  dignity  of  theocratic  kingship,  Aaronic  priest- 
hood, and  divinely  instituted  prophetism.  Hence  the 
prophets  describe  the  Messias  as  the  great  theocratic  king; 
and  since  in  David,  who  is  the  Messias'  father  as  well  as 
his  type,  they  see  a  king  according  to  God's  oAvn  heart, 
they  describe  the  Messias  as  possessing  the  qualities  of 
David — nay,  they  call  the  Messias  by  David's  own  name. 
In  a  similar  manner  the  Messias  is  represented  as  the  great 
prophet,  who  is  to  teach  all  nations,  and  as  the  eminent 
high-priest  who  will  destroy  all  sin  by  offering  himself  as 
a  victim.  The  unbloody  sacrifice  of  the  New  Law  is  named 
by  the  same  name  as  the  unbloody  sacrifices  of  the  Old 
(Mai.  i.  11).  Tlio  Messianic  kingdom  is  in  the  same  man- 
ner represented  by  a  series  of  pictures  and  figures  taken 
from  David's   kingship.     Jerusalem  is  the  centre  of  the 


156  INTRODUCTION. 

Messianic  kingdom,  a«  it  liiul  been  tlie  capital  of  the  theo- 
cratic reign;  the  Gentiles  who  are  converted  to  the  Mes- 
sianic creed  are  said  to  How  to  Mount  Sion  (Is.  ii. ;  Mich, 
v.),  to  be  born  on  Sion  (Ps.  Ixxxvi.),  to  find  their  salvation 
on  Mount  Sion  and  in  Jerusalem  (Joel  ii.  32).  The  ene- 
mies of  the  Messianic  kingdom  bear  the  names  of  the 
tribes  hostile  to  Jerusalem  and  the  theocratic  kingdom. 
In  the  New  Law  there  will  not  be  wanting  priests  and 
Levites  to  offer  the  burnt-offerings  and  the  other  sacrifices 
(Jer.  xxxiii.  18),  the  sabbaths  will  be  kept  without  inter- 
mission (I^.  xvi.  23),  all  the  nations  will  come  to  Jerusa- 
lem for  the  celebration  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Zach. 
xiv.  IC). 

3.  Dilfercnre  hctivecn  Symbols  and  Types. — Tlie  pro- 
phetic symI)ols  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
prophetic  types.  They  agree  in  this  with  the  types  that 
they  are  persons  or  things  assumed  to  signify  something 
future;  but  they  differ  from  the  types  mainly  in  their 
want  of  any  historical  existence.  In  themselves  they  were 
nothing  but  images  shown  to  the  prophets  in  order  to 
reveal  to  them  a  part  of  the  future.  Thus  Jeremias 
(xxiv.)  saw^  two  basketfuls  of  grapes,  the  one  good,  the 
other  bad,  to  indicate  the  dift'erent  fate  that  was  to  befall 
those  that  had  been  transported  to  Babylon  and  those  that 
were  still  remaining  in  Jerusalem.  iVmos  (viii.)  saw  under 
the  figure  of  a  hook  which  bringeth  down  the.  fruit,  the 
approaching  desolation  of  Israel  caused  by  the  nation's 
avarice  and  injustice.  Isaias  foreshows  the  shameful 
transportation  of  the  Egyptians  into  Babylon  by  walking 
naked  and  barefoot.  Jeremias  breaks  a  potter's  vessel, 
and  thus  announces  the  desolation  of  the  Jews  occasioned 
by  their  sins  (der.  xix.;  Is.  xx.).  The  use  of  imagery  in 
the  proi)hetic  writings  is  also  the  reason  of  the  dramatic 
nature  of  many  prophecies -a  characteristic  to  which  St. 
Jerome  (In  Nah.  ii.  1.  M.  2"),  1303;  in  Is.  iii.  i:};  xxi.  3; 
in  Jer.  ix.  14.  M.  24,  (JS,  lIKi,  T(!l)  attributed  in  great  part 
the  ol)scurity  of  the  predictions.       In   Isaias  (Ixiii.)    the 


fHE  WRITimS  OF  THE  PROPHETS.  157 

projjliet  asks,  "  Who  is  this  that  cometh  from  Edom  ? " 
In  answer  the  conqueror  himself  speaks:  "I  have  trodden 
the  winepress  alone.  .  .  ."  And  the  prophet  is  in  conse- 
quence incited  to  fervent  prayer  of  thanksgiving:  "I  will 
remember  the  tender  mercies  of  the  Lord.  .  .  ," 

4.  Hoio  to  recognize  the  Typical  Meaning. — It  is  in 
great  part  owing  to  the  neglect  of  the  prophetic  types  and 
symbols  that  the  Jews  did  not  recognize  in  Jesus  tlie  Mes- 
sias.  AVithout  considering  that  the  kingdom  of  David  is 
only  a  type  of  the  Messianic  kingdom,  they  expected  a  lit- 
eral fulfilment  in  the  person  of  tlie  Messias  of  all  tliat  had 
been  said  concerning  his  royal  dignity.  And  if  modern 
I'ationalists  point  out  Messianic  prophecies  tiiat  luive  not 
been  fulfilled  in  Jesus,  they  are  generally  taken  from  the 
typical  predictions  treating  of  the  Messias  as  tl)e  great 
king,  the  infallible  propliet,  and  the  universal  high-priest. 
In  order,  however,  to  answer  these  objections  wo  must 
briefly  point  out  a  few  rules  by  which  we  may  be  enabled 
to  distinguish  between  the  typical,  the  symbolic,  and  the 
literal  predictions. 

a.  If  a  prophecy  has  been  evidently  fulfilled,  the  event 
must  show  whether  it  was  intended  in  a  typical  or  a  literal 
sense.  Before  the  advent  of  Christ  it  was  doubtful  whether 
Ps.  xxi.  13-17  ;  cix.  7  were  to  be  understood  literally  or  typi- 
cally.   But  after  Christ's  crucifixion  all  doubt  has  vanished. 

b.  Other  prophecies  are  rendered  clear  by  a  comparison 
with  parallel  predictions.  Thus  the  statement  tliat  the 
Messias  is  to  be  a  mighty  warrior  is  explained  by  the  other 
that  he  is  the  Prince  of  peace  (Is.  ix.  G;  xi.  42);  the 
tyjiical  character  of  the  continued  existence  of  the  Leviti- 
cal  priesthood  and  of  the  Old  Testament  sacrifices  is  evi- 
dent from  the  literal  predictions  announcing-  tlie  end  of 
priesthood  and  sacrifices  alike  (Jer.  xxxiii.  18;  Is.  Ivi.  G; 
Ix.  7;  Ezech.  xl.-xlviii.;  Jer.  iii.  IG;  xxxi.  ?A;  Mal.  i.  11, 
etc.);  that  the  Messias  is  not  David  in  a  literal  sense  is 
plain  from  those  passages  in  which  he  is  called  the  son  of 
David. 


168  INTRODUCTION. 

c.  If  the  litenil  acceptation  of  a  prophecy  wouhl  de- 
stroy the  very  nature  of  the  person  or  tiling  of  which  there 
is  question,  we  must  seek  for  a  typi(;al  or  a  symbolic  mean- 
ing (cf.  Corn,  a  Lap.,  Proleg.  in  Prophet.  Can.  v. ;  Forer. 
in  Is.  xlv.  8).  St.  Jerome  (in  Is.  xi.  C.  M.  24, 150  f.),  writing 
against  the  Christian  millenarians  (St.  Justin,  c.  Tryph. 
SI.  M.  G,  GGS;  St.  Iren.,  c.  h»r.  v.  33,  M.  7,  1214;  Lactant., 
Instit.  vii.  24.  M.  G,  809;  cf.  Ilengstenberg,  Christol.  ii. 
pp.  138  ff. ;  Delitzsch,  "Isaias,"  pp.  188  f.;  Niigelsbach, 
"Isaias,"p.  148),  ridicules  all  those  who  expect  a  literal  ful- 
filment of  Is.  xi.  6:  "The  wolf  shall  dwell  with  the  lamb 
..."  Cornely  is  of  opinion  that  the  same  must  be  said  of 
the  literal  fultilment  of  Is.  ii.  2;  Mich.  v.  2  against  all 
those  who  believe  that  at  tlie  end  of  time  Mount  Sion  will 
be  placed  on  the  top  of  all  other  mountaiTis,  or  that  all 
other  mountains  will  disa])pear,  Sion  alone  remaining  (cf. 
Cornely,  Intr.  II.  ii.  p.  304;  Hofmann,  "Erfi'illung  uud 
Weissagung,"  ii.  p.  217;  Delitzsch, "  Isaias, ''  p.  Gl;  Niigels- 
bach,  "  Isaias,"  p.  148). 

d.  Finally,  all  those  predictions  that  allude  to  facts  of 
the  Jewish  history  must  be  understood  in  a  typical  rather 
than  in  a  literal  sense.  Thus  we  read :  "  If  the  Lord  shall 
wash  away  the  filth  of  the  daughters  of  Sion,  and  shall 
wash  away  the  blood  of  Jerusalem  out  of  the  midst  thereof, 
by  the  spirit  of  judgment  and  by  the  spirit  of  burning. 
And  the  Lord  will  create  upon  every  place  of  Mount  Sion, 
and  where  he  is  called  upon,  a  cloud  by  day,  and  a  smoke 
and  the  brightness  of  a  flaming  fire  in  the  night  "(Is.  iv.  4, 
.')).  At  times  the  typical  nature  of  the  })roi)hetic  i)redic- 
tion  is  indicated  in  the  words  of  the  text  itself  (cf.  Zach. 
X.  1 1,  Hebrew  text),  and  thus  all  difficulty  is  removed  (cf. 
Keinke,  Beitriige,  ii.  pp.  r)0-r)9;  Ilengstenberg,  Christo- 
logie,  iii.  2,  203  IT.;  Cornely,  Intr.  II.  ii.  pp.  288  If.;  Meig- 
nan,  "  Les  l*roi)heties  dans  les  deux  premiers  ch.  des  Kois," 
pp.  12-7;-,). 

T).  The  Fif/uroh're  Sense. — What  has  l)een  said  about 
the  interpretation  of  the  typical  and  the  symbolic  sense  of 


THE  WRITINGS  OF  THE  PROPHETS.  159 

the  prophetic  predictions  applies  in  a  measnre  also  to  the 
figurative  or  the  metaphorical  sense.  Since  the  style  of 
the  prophets  is  to  some  extent  poetical,  as  has  been  seen 
above,  in  the  interpretation  allowance  must  be  made  for 
figures  of  speecli  and  poetic  ornament  of  language.  It 
may  show  great  devotion  to  inquire  why  Jeremias  (xxiv.  1) 
saw  two  baskets  of  grapes  rather  than  of  any  other  fruit, 
or  why  Isaias  in  his  description  of  the  Prince  of  peace  (xi. 
(j)  mentions  tbe  sheep  and  the  Avolf  rather  than  other  ani- 
mals; but  it  is  very  uncertain  whether  we  shall  ever  be 
able  to  arrive  at  any  certainty  in  these  minutiaj  (cf.  Knab- 
enbauer,  "  Der  Prophet  Isaias,"  pp.  ITO  f, ;  180).  It  seems 
much  preferable  to  ascribe  them  to  the  poetic  language  of 
the  prophet. 


PART  I. 

GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESS  IAS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   MESSIAS    IS   THE    SON   OF   (JOl).     Ts.  ii. 

Introduction. 

1.  Position  of  Ps.  II. — lu  several  Hebrew  manuscripts 
the  first  and  second  psalms  are  united  so  as  to  form  only 
one  psalm;  in  others  the  second  stands  first  in  numerical 
order.  The  Greek  editions  of  the  New  Testament  by 
Erasmus,  Bengel,  and  Griesbach  consider  our  first  psalm 
as  a  kind  of  introduction  to  the  whole  psalter,  and  begin 
their  numbering  with  our  second  psalm.  They  do  so  on 
the  authority  of  several  Latin  and  Greek  Fathers,  who 
quote  the  seventh  verse  of  Ps.  ii.  as  occurring  in  Ps.  i. 
But  the  greater  number  of  manuscripts  and  editions  of  the 
New  Testament,  the  Vulgate  and  the  Oriental  versions 
among  the  rest,  quote  the  passage  as  taken  from  Ps.  ii. 
A  few  manuscripts  omit  the  number  entirely  (cf.  Acts  xiii. 
33). 

2.  Structure  of  Ps.  II.— In  the  Hebrew  text  this  psalm 
consists  of  four  stanzas,  the  first  three  of  which  contain 
seven  trochaic  liexasyllabic  verses  each,  while  the  fourth 

161 


102  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

mmibors  cijj^lit.  In  tlio  first  staiizu  tlio  i)s;ilniist  beliolds  n 
inultitiule  of  kings  iind  natioiis  in  rebellion  ugjiinst  Jebovuli 
iind  his  Anointed;  in  the  second  Jehovah  derides  the  in- 
surgents, and  dechires  that  he  lias  estal)lislied  liis  Anointed 
as  king  in  8ion;  in  the  third  the  Anointed  claims  an  abso- 
lute dominion  over  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  by  right  of 
inheritance;  in  the  fourth  the  psalmist  exhorts  the  kings 
to  serve  and  fear  Jehovah,  in  order  to  escape  his  angry 
vengeaneo  ((^f.  Clieyiie,  '"  Book  of  Psalms,"  pp.  3  f.). 

3.  Author  of  the  Psalm. — Opinions:  1. — The  psalm 
was  written  by  Asaph,  the  prophet,  when  the  Ammonites 
and  other  nations,  in  league  with  them,  conspired  against 
the  kingdom  of  Israel  and  the  king  Josaphat  (II.  I'aral. 
XX.  Rudinger).  There  is  no  solid  fonndation  for  this 
opinion. 

3.  The  author  is  an  unknown  person,  who  speaks  of  one 
of  the  later  Hebrew  kings  (llensler).  Hut  greater  power 
and  glory  is  ])redicted  of  Sion's  anointed  king  than  were 
enjoyed  by  any  of  the  kings  of  Juda  or  Israel  after  Solo- 
mon's time. 

3.  Nathan  the  prophet  wrote  the  second  iisalm  at  the 
time  when  Adonias,  the  son  of  David  l>y  llaggith,  exalted 
himself,  saying:  "I  will  bo  king"  (111.  Kings  i.  5).  The 
psalmist  intended  to  prevent  the  meditated  rebellion  by 
persuading  his  countrymen  to  embrace  the  interests  of 
their  divinely  appointed  king,  Solomon  (Anonym,  author). 
But  even  if  Ave  grant  that  the  word  '*  kings"  may  desig- 
nate persons  ambitious  of  becoming  kings,  wo  cannot 
understand  how  it  can  a2)ply  to  Adonias  alone,  or  how  the 
word  "Gentiles"  (rioyim  in  IIel)rew)  can  be  used  of  the 
Israelitic  tribes.  The  denunciations  too  are  of  a  severer 
character  than  they  would  have  been  had  they  been  ad- 
dressed to  the  Jews. 

4.  '^riie  oi)inion  that  Ps,  ii.  was  written  l)y  Solomon 
(Kwald,  I'aulus,  Block,  etc.),  or  liy  Kzechias  (Maurer),  or  l)y 
Isaias,  or  at  the  time  of  Isaias  (I)elitzsch-),  hardly  needs 
to  be  discussed,  since  the  reasons  establishing  the  psalm's 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  OOD.  163 

true  authorship  will  sufficiently  answer  all  the  arguments 
of  our  opponents. 

5.  King  David  is  the  author  of  the  second  psalm. 
Proofs:  a.  In  Acts  iv.  25  the  beginning  of  Ps.  ii.  is  intro- 
duced with  the  words,  "  who  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  by  the 
mouth  of  our  father  David,  thy  servant,  hath  said."  Com- 
pare also  Acts  xiii.  33,  34.  h.  The  first  forty,  or,  accord- 
ing to  the  Ileljrew  text,  the  first  forty-one  psalms  consti- 
tute what  is  known  as  the  first  book  of  the  psalter,  which 
was,  according  to  the  more  common  opinion,  written  by 
David.  In  the  Hebrew  text  thirty-seven  psalms  out  of  the 
forty-one  are  ascribed  to  David  in  the  titles  of  the  Psalms. 
c.  The  second  psalm  is  very  similar  to  Ps.  cix.  (ex.), 
which  latter  was  beyond  all  doubt  composed  by  David 
(cf.  Ps.  ii.  7  and  cix.  2,  5,  G).  d.  Supposing  the  Mes- 
sianic character  of  the  second  psalm,  which  we  shall  estab- 
lish in  the  next  paragraj^h,  its  description  of  the  anointed 
king  fits  very  well  into  the  time  of  David,  e.  Jewish 
tradition,  too,  ascribes  the  psalm  to  David,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  words  of  Solomon  Jarchi  and  David  Kimchi.  If 
Aben  Ezra  ascribes  it  to  "some  of  the  minstrels,*'  still  he 
insists  that  it  has  reference  "  to  David  at  the  time  when 
he  was  chosen  king."     Driver  (Introduction  to  the  Literat. 

0.  T.,  pj).  3G2  f.,  note)  does  not  consider  that  David  is  both 
prophet  and  king. 

4.  Subject  of  the  Psalm.— The  subject  of  the  second 
psalm  is  identical  with  the  "anointed  king."     Opinions: 

1.  All  Catholics  must  hold  that  the  "anointed  king"  is,  at 
least,  a  type  of  the  Messias;  that,  therefore,  the  subject  of 
the  psalm,  at  least  in  its  typical  meaning,  is  Christ  Jesus. 
Reasons:  a.  Such  is  the  tradition  of  the  Synagogue 
Jarchi  says:  "  Our  doctors  expound  this  psalm  as  having 
reference  to  King  Messias;  but  in  accordance  Avitli  the 
literal  sense,  and  that  it  may  be  used  against  the  heretics 
[i.e.,  the  Christians,]  it  is  j^roper  that  it  be  explained  as 
relating  to  David  himself."  David  Kimchi  expresses  him- 
self as   follows  in  the  exposition   of  this  psalm :   "  There 


164  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

are  some,"  says  he,  "  who  expouiul  this  psahn  as  referring 
to  Gog  and  Magog;  and  that  the  anointed  king  is  the 
Messias.  Our  doctors  of  blessed  memory  thus  expounded 
it,  and  the  psalm  so  explained  is  very  perspicuous;  yet  it 
seems  more  reasonable  to  think  that  David  com2)osed  it  in 
reference  to  himself,  and  in  this  sense  we  have  accordingly 
explained  it  "  (cf.  Coroll.  1a).  h.  Christian  tradition  agrees 
on  this  point  with  the  Jewish;  the  Fathers  of  the  Church 
have  made  use  of  the  second  i)salm  in  i)roving  the  divinity 
of  Christ  against  the  Arians  (cf.  Kilber,  "  Analysis  liiblia," 
ii.  8,  2d  ed.).  c.  The  psalm  is  aj)plied  to  Christ  in  the 
New  Testament  (cf.  iVcts  iv.  25-27;  xiii.  33;  Ileb.  i.  5; 
V.  5;  Apoc.  xix.  15). 

2.  Many  Catholic  and  some  Protestant  commentators 
maintain  that  the  anointed  king  and  all  that  is  said  of  him 
refers  literally  to  the  Messias.  Reasons:  a.  From  the 
above  cited  passages  of  Jarchi  and  Kimchi  it  appears  that 
such  was  the  Jewish  tradition,  b.  The  Avliole  psalm  in 
its  literal  sense  well  agrees  with  the  Messias;  the  literal 
sense  of  several  of  its  clauses  cannot  apply  to  any  one  else, 
e.g.,  "this  day  have  I  begotten  thee,"  and  "I  will  give 
thee  the  Gentiles  for  thy  inheritance,  and  the  utmost  parts 
of  the  earth  for  thy  possession."  c.  The  fact  that  the 
terms  "Christ"  (Messias)  and  "Son  of  God"  became 
l)ropcr  names  of  the  expected  Redeemer  (John  iv.  25;  i. 
49)  is  owing  to  the  second  psalm.  This  is  also  another 
proof  that  the  Jews  understood  the  psalm  in  its  literal 
sense  of  the  Messias.  d.  Ps.  cix.  (ex.),  which  is  similar  to 
Ps.  ii.,  is  commonly  explained  as  referring  in  its  literal 
sense  to  the  Messias.  A  like  explanation  must  then  be 
given  of  the  second  psalm. 

3.  Patrizi  is  of  o})inion  that  part  of  the  psalm  t:iken  in 
its  literal  sense  api)lies  to  the  ]\[essias,  part  to  King  Solo- 
mon. The  reasons  given  in  the  preceding  ])aragrai)h  lead 
him  to  the  partial  Messianic  interpretation,  while  the 
words  of  the  prophet  Nathan,  "  I  will  be  to  him  a  father, 
and  he  shall  be  to  me  a  son  "  (II.  Kings  vii.  14),  spoken  as 


THE  MESSIAS  rS  THE  SON  OF  GOD.  165 

they  are  of  Solomon,  establish  in  his  opinion  the  Solomonic 
relation  of  the  psalm.  Thns  type  and  anti-type  are  blended 
into  one. 

4.  Some  expositors  have  thonght  that  Solomon  is  the 
king  celebrated  in  this  song  (Ewald,  Bleek,  etc.).  Rea- 
sons: a.  In  II.  Kings  vii.  13,  14,  Solomon  is  called  "son  of 
God."  b.  Among  all  the  kings  of  Israel  Solomon  was  the 
only  one,  so  far  as  we  know,  who,  after  being  anointed  at 
the  fountain  Gihon,  was  brought  up  with  royal  pomp  to 
Mount  Sion.  c.  It  may  be  supposed  that  in  the  beginning 
of  Solomon's  reign  the  subdued  surrounding  nations  would 
attempt  to  free  themselves  from  the  power  of  the  Israelite 
king.  This  rebellion,  being  of  but  short  duration,  has  not 
been  mentioned  in  any  of  Israel's  historical  books.  This 
last  reason,  however,  is  nothing  but  a  gratuitous  conjecture 
in  support  of  a  favorite  hypothesis.  It  is  stated  in  explicit 
terms  in  III.  Kings  v.  4,  5  and  I.  Paral.  xxii.  9  that  Solo- 
mon's reign  was  a  period  of  profound  peace.  Again  Ps. 
Ixxxviii.  27,  28  promises  that  God  will  make  David  his 
"  first-born,  high  above  the  kings  of  the  earth."  The  above 
reasons,  then,  do  not  prove  that  the  second  psalm,  in  its 
literal  meaning,  must  apply  to  Solomon. 

5.  Another  class  of  writers  maintains  that  David  is  the 
subject  of  the  second  psalm.  Eeasons :  a.  David  is  often 
called  the  anointed,  as  in  II.  Kings  xii.  7;  Ps.  xix.  (xx.)  7. 
i.  David  wielded  his  royal  power  on  Mount  Sion  (I.  Par. 
XV.  1;  xvi.  1).  c.  There  were  several  periods  in  David's 
reign  that  agree  with  the  description  given  in  the  psalm : 

I.  The  period  when  David  was  attacked  by  the  army  of 
the  Philistines,  after  he  had  taken  the  stronghold  of  the 
Jebusites  (Jarchi,  Kimchi)  (cf.  11.  Kings  v.  20).  2. 
When  David  had  gained  the  victory  over  the  Philistines, 
Moabites,  Syrians,  and  the  other  neighboring  nations  (cf. 

II.  Kings  viii.  1-15)  (Grotius,  Moller,  etc.).  3.  When 
the  Benjamites  together  with  Saul's  family  supported  Is- 
boseth  against  David  (Doderlein).  4.  When  David's  son 
Absalom    conspired   against    his   father    (Kuinoel,  etc.). 


166  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

d.  Tlic  psalmist,  whom  we  have  idontifietl  with  David, 
writes  as  of  actual  and  present  occurrences.  But  we  must 
lemeniber,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  prophetic  vision 
commonly  presents  future  scenes  as  actually  present;  we 
must  consider,  on  the  other,  that  at  the  time  of  the  lirst  of 
the  above  victories  over  the  Philistines  8ion  was  not  as 
yet  the  Holy  Mount,  since  the  ark  of  the  covenant  did  not 
then  rest  on  Sion  (cf.  II.  Kings  vi.  1).  As  to  the  subsefjuent 
victories  of  David,  they  did  not  subdue  rebellious  nations, 
previously  subject  to  David's  sway,  as  the  jjsalm  describes 
it;  but  they  were  gained  over  the  independent  surround- 
ing tribes  and  the  members  of  his  own  family.  Though 
David  was  anointed  he  did  not  receive  his  consecration 
on  Mount  Sion,  but  first  in  Bethlehem  and  later  at  Hebron 
(I.  Kings  xvi.  1-3;  II.  Kings  ii.  1-4). 

To  sum  up,  the  second  psalm  was  written  by  David,  aiid 
refers  to  the  Messias,  probably  in  its  literal  sense.  By  this 
is  not  excluded  the  opinion  that  some  particular  external 
occurrence  or  a  chain  of  such  occurrences  was  the  immedi- 
ate occasion  of  the  psalm.  Nor  is  the  opinion  of  those 
writers  who  apply  the  psalm  only  in  its  typical  sense  to 
Christ  destitute  of  probability.  Delitzsch  (Commentar 
iiber  den  Psalter,  vol.  i.  p.  9)  well  ex})resses  the  result  of 
his  investigation.  "  The  question  concerning  the  person 
of  the  Anointed,"  he  says,  "need  not  detain  us  long;  for 
in  the  labyrinth  of  opinions  one  point  remains  certain  be- 
yond all  doubt:  that  the  jierson  of  the  Anointed,  in  whom 
the  whole  psalm  centres,  appears  in  that  divine  splendor 
of  power  which  the  i)r<)phet  predicted  of  the  Messias. 
"Whether  it  be  a  present  or  a  future  king  .  .  .  who  is  thus 
considered  in  the  light  of  the  Messianic  prophecies,  in 
either  case  the  Anointed  is  according  to  the  psalmist's 
mind  the  })ers()n  of  the  Messias"  (cf.  Cheyne,  "Book  of 
Psalms,"  p.  4). 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  80]!^  OF  OOD.  167 


Ps.  II. 

'  Why  have  the  Gentiles  '  raged  ^ 
And  the  people  devised  vain  things  ? 

'  First  Stanza.  The  dramatic  nature  of  the  psalm  manifests  itself 
by  the  abrupt  exordium  and  the  stage-like  change  of  speakers.  'l"ho 
prophet  begins  by  picturing  in  general  outlines  his  vision  of  the 
world's  rebellion  against  Jehovah  and  his  Anointed.  Then  the  reb- 
els give  utterance  to  their  comi)laints  and  designs.  The  full  meaning 
of  the  first  stanza  will  best  appear  by  a  study  and  comparison  of  its 
]mrallel  terms:  "Gentiles"  and  "people,"  "raged"  and  "devised 
vain  things,"  "kings"  and  "princes,"  "stood  up"  and  "met  to- 
gether," "the  Lord"  and  "his  Christ,"  "break"  and  "castaway," 
"  bonds  "  and  "  yoke." 

■•' Gentiles— People.  The  Hebrew  plural  for  "Gentiles,"  "Qoyim," 
without  a  qualifying  noun  or  adjective,  is  never  used  of  the  Hebrew 
race  alone.  In  the  singular  number  the  word  denotes  the  Israelitic 
]>eople  in  Gen  xii.  3  ;  Jos.  iii.  17  ;  Is.  i.  4,  etc.  The  plural  always 
either  includes  non-Hebrew  tribes  or  is  accompanied  by  a  modi- 
fying phrase,  (ien.  xvii.  16  and  Ezech.  ii.  3  form  no  exceptions. 
'I'he  Rabbinic  writers  employ  "Goyim"  for  all  non-Hebrew  nations. 
The  llel)rew  word  for  people,  "  leummim,"  is  a  synonym  of  "  Goyim," 
and  denotes  strange  nations.  In  the  present  passage  it  was  inter- 
preted by  the  early  Christians  as  referring  to  the  tribes  of  Israel 
(Acts  iv.  27) ;  that  this  interpretation  was  given  by  divine  inspira- 
tion is  not  certain,  though  it  is  probable.  Perhaps  it  was  owing  to 
their  rejection  of  the  Messias  that  the  Hebrews  had  been  designated 
in  prophecy  by  a  name  that  was  proper  to  an  unhallowed  people. 
Eusebius,  St.  Cyril,  and  St.  Jerome  apply  the  word  to  the  degenerate 
Israelites. 

*Eaged — Devised  vain  things.  The  word  translated  by  "raged" 
denotes  the  tumultuous  noise  of  a  multitude,  when  murmurs  of  rage 
and  threatening  break  forth  into  curses  and  deeds  of  violence.  The 
corresponding  Arabic  verb  expresses  the  loud  bellowing  of  the  camel, 
the  roar  of  the  sea,  and  the  crash  of  thunder.  In  Syriac  too  the  word 
with  its  derivatives  denotes  a  loud,  crashing,  roaring  noise.  The 
word  used  in  the  Hebrew  text  for  "devised"  seems  to  have  first  sig- 
nified what  is  accompanied  by  great  heat ;  applied  to  internal  actions 
it  meant  intense  thought,  which  according  to  Aben  Ezra  breaks  forth 
into  words.  Its  oliject  in  the  psalm  is  "vain  things,"  in  Hebrew 
"riq."  Venema  insists  on  the  primitive  meaning  of  "  riq,"  saliva  or 
spittle,  the  emission  of  which  is,  according  to  his  opinion,  a  sign  of 
anger  (cf.  Job  i.  23 ;  xxiv.  12).  But  the  learned  author  has 
been  deceived  in  his  derivation  of  the  Hebrew  word.  In  point  of 
fact,  the  primitive  meaning  of  "  riq  "  is  "  empty,"  "  vain."  Hufna- 
gel's  translation,  "  wickedness,"  is  without  foundation,  and  has  been 
rightly  opposed  by  learned  critics,  especially  by  Eichhorn.  Judges 
ix.  4  ;  xi.  3  ;  vii.  16  ;  II.  Par.  xii.  7  ;  and  IV.  Kings,  iv.  3  are  pas- 
sages which  illustrate  the  meaning  of  "empty"  rather  than  of 
"  wicked." 


168  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSTA8. 

The  *  kings  of  the  earth '  stood  up, 
And  the  princes  met  together. 
Against  the  °  Lord,  and  against  his  Christ. 
"  Let  us  '  break  their  *  bonds  asunder. 
And  let  us  cast  away  their  yoke  from  us." 

••Kings— Princes.  The  "kings  of  the  earth  "  are  not  merely  the 
petty  kings  of  the  neighboring  Canaanitish  tribes,  or  the  I'liilistine 
iuurSvrian  princes,  as  (irotius  has  explained  the  phrase  (cf.  Jos.  xiii. 
;?;  Judg.  iii.  8;  xvi.  5,  8  ;  I.  Kings  vi.  18;  II.  Kings  viii.  x.),  but 
the  kings  and  sovereigns  of  foreign  nations,  as  we  must  conclnde 
from  Ps.  ii.  8  and  Ps.  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.)  8-11.  The  literal  meaning  of  the 
word  translated  "  princes  "  is  "men  of  weight";  but  its  more  spe- 
citie  signification  of  "kings"  or  "])rinces"  is  not  uncommon  (cf. 
Judg.  V.  3  ;  Prov.  viii.  15  ;  xxxi.  4  ;  Is.  xl.  28).  St.  Atlianasius, 
St.  Ililary,  bupertus,  and  Arias  explain  the  phra.ses  as  denoting 
Herod  aiul  I'ilate,  Annas  and  Caiphas,  respectively  (cf.  C'heyne,  "  Hook 
of  Psalms,"  ]).  5). 

■''Stood  up— Met  together.  The  phrase  "stood  u]i  against"  in  its 
Ilehrew  form  generally  nu-ans  "to  stand  before,"  "to  attend  upon," 
"to  serve,"  as  niay  be  se<'n  fnmi  Job  i.  6  ;  ii.  1  ;  Zach.  vi.  5;  II. 
Par.  xi.  18  ;  the  context  shows  that  in  the  present  ])assage  it  must  be 
taki-n  in  a  bad  sense,  denoting  the  ujirisiiij;  of  rebels.  'I'lic  jiarallel 
phrase  translated  "met  together,"  according  to  Venema  and  Michae- 
lis  Drinuiriiy  signifies  "  to  recline  u])on  a  i)illow."  Then  it  denotes 
also  the  rest"  on  the  couches  placed,  in  Eastern  countries,  around  the 
walls,  on  which  friends  sit  to  converse  or  to  hold  council.  Hence  it 
derives  its  meaning  of  "deliberating"  or  "taking  counsel."  The 
Turks  use  a  similar  figure  when  they  siK-ak  of  holding  a  "  Divan." 

*  Lord — Christ.  According  to  the  theocratic  svstem  of  government, 
Jehovah  was  Israel's  su])reme  king,  who  ruled  the  nation  by  his 
anointed  dejuity  (cf.  I.  Kings  x.  17  f.  and  I.  Kings  xvi.  1  ff.,  con- 
cerning Saul  and  David).  1  he  Hebrew  kings  therefore  held  their 
office  directly  from  Jehovah,  whose  official  consecration  they  obtained 
by  being  anointed.  In  this  regard  the  office  of  king  was  as  distinctly 
divine  as  that  of  ])rophet  or  priest.  Some  writers  exjjlaiu  Jelu)vah 
as  designating  (iod  the  Father,  in  order  to  distinguish  from  him  the 
Anointed,  his  son,  the  more  clearly.  The  conjecture  that  the  light 
of  rea.son  is  meant  liy  Jehovah  liardly  needs  refutaition.  Concerning 
the  various  views  about  the  .\nointed,  enough  has  been  said  in  the 
introductory  )iaragra])lis. 

'  Break  asunder— Cast  away.  The  word  used  in  the  Hebrew  text 
for  "  l)reak"  stands  in  the  intensive  form,  and  fnun  its  emphatic  end- 
ing nuiv  be  seen  tht;  firm  determiiuition  of  the  rebel  nations  and 
l)rini'es"to  proceed  to  acts  of  violence.  From  Jer.  xxii.  2-1;  Judg. 
xvi.  5>,  etc  ,  as  well  as  from  the  corres|)(>nding  .\rabic  won),  it  is  |>lain 
that  we  might  translate  the  Hebrew  verb  l>y  "pull  olT  "  or  "(Iraw 
out,"  instead  of  "break."  The  emphatic  ending  is  also  found  in  the 
Hebrew  text  of  the  verb  "cast  away." 

•■  Bonds— Yoke.  The  words  translated  "bonds"  and  "yoke"  are 
l)erliaiis  more  exactly  rendered  "  chains"  anil  "ropes."  Some  think 
that  the  Psalmist  alludes  to  the  chains  which  outgoing  arnues  useil 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  TEE  SON  OF  OOD.  169 

'  He  that  -  dwelleth  in  heaven  shall  '  laugh  at  them, 

And  the  Lord  shall  deride  them. 

Then  shall  he  ''speak  to  them  in  his  anger, 

to  carry  in  order  to  bind  the  prisoners  of  war  that  might  fall  into 
their  hands  (Paulas);  others  look  upon  the  chains  and  chords  as  gen- 
eral symbols  of  dominion  (Roseninilller);  others  again  see  in  them 
the  sign  of  fixed  resolve  or  counsel  (Kimchi,  Anonym,  etc.);  others 
think  they  signifj'  the  hardness  of  Jehovah's  service  for  the  impenitent 
sinner.  Its  sweetness  to  the  men  of  good-will  ajipears  from  Ps.  cxviii. 
(cxix.)  and  Lulce  xix.  14.  Flaminius,  Arias,  and  St.  Augustine  ex- 
plain tlie  bonds  as  meaning  the  law  of  God. 

'  Second  Stanza.  The  second  stanza  is  the  exact  counterpart  of  the 
first.  It  begins  with  tlie  general  description  of  the  effect  that  the 
rebellion  produces  on  Jehovah,  and  then  introduces  the  Lord  himself 
spealving.  The  parallel  phrases  are:  "  he  that  dwelleth  in  lieaven  " 
and  "the  Lord,"  "laugh"  and  "deride,"  "speak  in  anger"  and 
"trouble    in  his   rage." 

'^  Dwelleth  .  .  . — Lord.  To  emphasize  from  the  start  the  contempt- 
ible smaliness  of  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  earth,  the  Psalmist 
points  out  to  them  that  their  Lord  dwelleth  in  heaven.  The  Hebrew 
text  suggests,  moreover,  a  sitting,  quiet  posture  of  the  heavenly  Lord. 
Whether  the  prophet  mentally  located  heaven  in  the  sky  or  con- 
ceived it  as  we  do,  does  not  affect  the  sense  of  the  present  passage. 
The  anthropomorphic  representation  of  (lod  is  in  keeping  with  the 
vivid  earnestness  of  the  prophet. 

^  Laugh — Deride.  In  the  Hebrew  text  we  read  "shall  laugh"  in- 
stead of  "shall  laugh  at  them."  Hubigant  and  Iv()hler  were  of 
opinion  that  tlie  object  after  laugh  should  be  supplied  in  the  Hebrew 
text.  But  it  is  omitted  in  the  Chaldaic  and  Syriac  versions  too,  so 
that  it  must  have  been  wanting  in  the  Hebrew  text  at  a  very  early 
date.  The  present  reading  gives  a  beautiful  climax.  The  Lord  first 
laughs,  smiles,  as  it  were  in  compassion;  then  he  derides  his  enemies; 
next  he  speaks  to  them  in  anger,  and  finally  troubles  them  in  his  rage. 
St.  .Jerome  remarks  that  the  Lord  does  not  really  deride  any  one,  but 
that  his  enemies  render  themselves  worthy  of  derision.  Venerable 
Bede,  Alexander  of  Hales,  Dennis  the  Carthusian,  and  Bredenbach 
think  that  the  deriding  refers  to  the  day  of  judgment  (Cheyne, 
"Book  of  Psalms,"  p.  5). 

•*  Speak  in  anger — Trouble  in  rage.  Kimchi  and  Alien  B]zra  mention 
some  Jewish  writers  who  render  the  Hebrew  of  the  phrase  "he  shall 
speak  to  them"'  by  "he  shall  destroy  their  mighty  men."  The  verb 
found  in  this  phrase  has  the  meaning  of  de.stroying  also  in  II.  Par. 
xxii.  10.  But  the  second  part  of  the  expression  nowhere  else  signi- 
fies "mighty  men,"  or  heroes.  Ezech.  xvii.  18,  pointed  out  as  a  jiar- 
allel  instance,  has  a  reading  somewhat  different  from  Ps.  ii.  5.  Ken- 
nicott's  manuscript,  marked  No.  70,  and  dating  from  the  thirteenth 
centur}^,  is  the  only  copy  the  text  of  which  would  allow  the  al)ove 
rendering.  But  since  there  is  (juestion  only  of  an  additional  letter, 
"yodh,"  we  may  ascribe  its  presence  to  the  negligence  of  a  tran- 
scriber. The  parallel  expression,  "  shall  trouble,"  is  rendered  by  Mi- 
chaelis  as  "shall  curse,"  on  account  of  the  meaning  of  the  corre- 


170  OBNEALOOY  OF  THE  MES8IA8. 

And  trouble  them  in  his  rage. 
"  But  'I  am  appointed  king  by  him 
Over  *  Sion,  his  holy  mountain, 

sponding  verl)  in  Ai'fibic.  Tliis  fransLation  being  without  foundation, 
we  must  adben-  to  tlie  Hebrew  use  of  the  word.  It  expres.ses  first  a 
basty  preeipitate  nioveiiuMit.  as  in  I.  Esdras  iv.  215  and  Eccl(!.s.  v.  1; 
tlien  it  includes  tlie  troiii)led  state  of  mind  that  acc()Ui])anies  haste 
in  movement,  as  in  I.  Kings  xxviii.  21;  Ps.  Ixxxii,  10;  Jer.  li.  82. 
Faber  imagines  tliat  tiebovab's  sjieaking  to  tlie  rebels  and  troubling 
them  refers  to  thunder  and  lightning.  All  this  he  infers  from  the 
fact  that  in  I.  Kings  vii.  10,  the  "  voice  of  Jeliovali"  is  used  in  tlie 
sense  of  thunder.  \'enerable  Bede  applies  th(^  phrase  "  he  shall 
speak  to  them  in  his  anger"  to  the  words  of  the  last  judgment: 
"  Depart  from  me."  Dennis  the  Carthusian  and  others  ln)Id  that  the 
judicial  coiubMiination  to  eternal  imnisbment  is  referred  to  in  the 
words  "he  shall  troul)le  them  in  his  rage."  Scliegg  maintains  that 
Jehovah  derided  liis  enemies,  the  Pharisees  and  the  memJ)ers  of  the 
Sanhedriu,  vyhcn  he  confounded  them  before  the  multitudes  and  si- 
lenced them  through  the  instrumentality  of  simple  fishermen;  that 
be  s])oke  to  tlunn  in  bis  anger  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ;  that 
he  again  derided  his  enemies,  the  pagan  emperors  and  judges,  by 
miraculously  sustaining,  kee])ing,  and  healing  the  martyrs;  and 
timiUy,  that  he  again  spoke  in  anger  by  the  destruction  of  pagan- 
ism through  the  iiiHuence  of  ("liristianity. 

'■I  am  appointed  king.  The  words  that  immediately  follow  "I 
am  appointed  king  "  are  actively  construed  in  the  Hebrew  text,  in  the 
versions  of  St.  Jerome,  Aipiila,  Symmacbus,  and  in  the  Cbaldee  and 
Syriac  readings.  Accordingly,  we  must  translate  "1  have  anointed, 
or  constituted  my  king."  Against  those  writers  who  insist  on  the 
correctness  of  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  versions,  as  agreeing  with 
differently  i)ointed  ll«4)rew  manu.scripts,  we  uuiy  appeal  to  the  im- 
propriety of  such  a  translati(m.  If  faithfully  rendered,  it  must  read  : 
"  Hut  1  am  ap])ointed  my  king  by  him  over  Sion,  my  holy  mountain." 
For  even  if  it  he  f;raiite<l  that  the  "  my  "  of  the  ])lirase  "  my  king  " 
may  be  exi)laine(l  as  a  mere  paragogic  atlix,  no  faithful  version  has  a 
right  to  substitute  "  his  holy  mountain"  for  "my  holy  mountain." 
Aheii  Iv/.ra  rightly  remarks  that  to  anoint  is,  in  this  pa.ssage,  eipii- 
valent  to  const  it  lit  iiif,'-  in  royal  power. 

'•  Sion,  his  holy  mountain.  Sion  is  called  Jehovah's  holy  mountain, 
not  because  the  temple  was  built  on  it,  for  Mount  Moria  was  the 
temple  mount,  but  because  the  sanctuary  bad  been  there  before  S(do- 
mon's  time  (cf.  11.  Kings  vi.  17).  'i'lie  suggestion  of  {{oseii- 
miiller  that  the  Hebrew  i)lirase  should  be  translated  "  upon  the  hill 
of  my  exaltation  "  appears  to  be  groundless.  A  learned  anonymous 
author  supi)oses  that  Sion  is  here  mentioned  becausi^  it  had  been  the 
first  among  David's  many  conquests.  Hut  this  opinion  serves  merely 
to  ])ri'i)are  the  way  for  his  Solomonic  interju-etation  of  Ps.  ii.  without 
restin^r  on  solid  arguments.  Wlu-ther  the  phrase  "over  Sion  hia 
holy  mountain  "  frrammatically  depends  on  the  verb  "  I  have  anointed" 
or  on  till-  noun  "Uin^,"  cannot  be  decided  from  the  text.  Hoth  ex- 
planations are   probable,  and  give  substantially  the  same  meaning. 


TUB  MESSTAS  IS   THE  SON  OF  GOD.  171 

''  Preaching  ^  his  °  commandment." 

Sts.  Jerome  and  Hilary  understand  the  Church  by  "  Mount  Sion." 
St.  Augustine  says  that  the  Church  is  called  Sion  on  account  of  her 
firmness  and  pre-eminence.  The  figure  is  a  common  one  in  biblical 
and  ecclesiastical  literature. 

^  Preaching.  Instead  of  the  phrase  "  preaching  his  commandment," 
we  read  in  the  Hebrew  text  "  I  will  declare  the  commandment,  or  the 
saying."  In  all  probability,  a  new  speaker,  the  anointed  king,  here 
interrupts  Jehovah  and  continues  his  discourse.  Stridsberg  con- 
jectures that  the  whole  phrase  is  nothing  l)ut  a  marginal  note,  indi- 
cating a  change  of  speakers,  which  has  been  incorporated  into  the 
text.  There  is  no  foundation  for  this  conjecture.  The  fact  that  our 
present  Hebrew  text  differs  from  that  of  the  Septuagint,  of  Theodo- 
tion,  A(piila,  and  St.  Jerome  has  led  to  a  variety  of  explanations. 
Kohler  thinks  that  in  ancient  Hebrew  manuscripts  the  participle 
must  have  been  found  instead  of  the  first  person  singular  ;  Bickell 
places  the  clause  "  I  will  declare  the  decree  of  Jehovah"  before  "  I 
have  been  appointed  king  by  him  over  Sion,  my  holy  mountain." 
Michaelis  goes  so  far  as  to  introduce  a  preposition  and  a  noun  instead 
of  the  verb  ;  he  translates  "  from  the  book  of  tiod,  a  statute  of  Jeho- 
vah." Bosenmiiller  appeals  to  the  Syriac  version,  in  which  no  change 
of  speakers  takes  place,  and  "my  commandment  "  is  read  instead  of 
"commandment."  Hence  he  suggests  the  translation  "  I  will  cause 
him  to  preach  my  commandment."  Another  explanation  of  the  phrase 
is  offered  by  Faber,  who  thinks  that  the  Hebrew  verb  used  in  this 
passage  may  mean  "to  cut  out,"  "to  engrave."  He  translates  :  "  I 
will  inscribe  upon  a  monument  what  Jehovah  hath  said  to  me." 

*  His  commaudment.  The  Septuagint  version  renders  the  whole 
jdirase  "  <leclariug  the  decree  of  the  Lord,  The  Lord  hath  said  to  me." 
It  repeats  "the  Lord,"  and  thus  differs  from  the  Hebrew  text. 
Hu])igant  and  Knappe  suppose  "the  Lord"  had  been  once  omitted 
in  the  Hebrew  text  through  the  carelessness  of  the  transcribers. 
Bickell  translates  by  "my  (iod"  what  is  usually  rendered  "to  me" 
(my  Uod  hath  said).  See  the  third  stanza.  Michaelis  repeats  "el  " 
instead  of  "Jehovah."  For  "  el"  precedes  the  noun  that  we  trans- 
late by  "commandment,"  and  thus  serves,  according  to  Kimchi, 
as  a  sign  of  tlie  direct  object,  though  taken  in  its  usual  sense  the 
preposition  means  "according  to."  FLscher  suggests  the  translation 
"  I  will  declare  what  (iod  hath  said  according  to  commandment  ;  " 
Venema  renders  it  "  I  will  declare  the  truth  ;  "  Ernesti  translates  "  I 
will  speak  according  as  the  matter  really  stands."  Other  writers 
transpose  the  noun  and  preposition,  rendering:  "I  will  declare  (or 
declaring)  the  commandment  of  (lod." 

"Commandment.  Patri/i  and  Ewald  tell  us  that  the  "  decree  "  or 
"command  "  referred  to  in  this  passage  is  the  prophecy  of  Nathan  as 
given  in  II.  Kings  vii.  14  (cf.  I.  Par.  xvii.  13;  xxii.  10,  and 
Ps.  Ixxxviii.  (Ixxxix.)  27).  The  more  conmion  opinion  points  to  the 
words  of  the  psalm  that  immediately  follow  as  constituting  the 
decree  in  (picstion.  HicUcll  ]>laces,  as  we  have  seen,  the  last  verse, 
"  I  will  declare  the  d('citM>  (►f  .Fehovah,"  before  the  words  "I  have 
appointed  my  king,"  etc.,  so  that  these  last  words  form  the  beginning 
of  the  decree. 


1T2  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

'  The  Lord  hath  said  to  nie  :  "Thou  art  my  son,' 
'  This  day  have  I  begotten  thee. 
Ask  of  me,  and  1  will  give  thee 

'  Third  Stanza.  The  third  stair/.ii  contains  in  all  probaltility  the 
decrei^  oi  .Jt'liovah  which  theanointiMl  Iving  promulgates.  Its  i)arallel 
terms  are  iho  following:  "my  son  "  and  "this  day  1  have  l)egott('n 
thee,"  "  the  (lentiles  "  and  "  the  utmost  parts  of  the  earth,"  "  inherit- 
ance "  and  "  possession,"  "  rule  with  a  rod  of  iron  "  and  "break  in 
pieces  like  a  potter's  vessel."  Bickell  lets  the  .stanza  begin  with  the 
words  :   "  (Jod  has  said,"  omitting  "  to  me." 

'-'  My  Son.  RosenmiiUer  (cf.  Cheyne,  Book  of  Psalms,  p.  5)  thinks 
that  the  anointed  king  is  called  the  son  of  (lod,  becau.se  according  to 
the  theocratic  coucei)tions  of  the  Jews  their  kin<i:  held  his  authority 
from  (iod  himself,  and  was  gifted  with  extraordinary  wisdom,  pru- 
dence, intrepidity,  and,  in  a  word,  with  all  the  gifts  that  befit  a  good 
monarch.  For  similar  reasons  the  (Jrecian  kings  were  said  by  Homer 
to  have  i)oen  born  of  dlod  or  to  be  nourished  by  Uod.  But  following 
the  teaching  of  St.  Paul  (Ileb.  i.  5),  all  Catholics  maintain  that  the 
word  "  son  "  in  this  ])assage  implies  natural  sonsliip.  The  Fathers 
of  the  Church  too  agree  on  this  iioint,  all  excluding  the  idea  of  merely 
adoptive  sonsliip. 

•*  This  day.  But  there  exists  no  such  agreement  concerning  the 
j)arallel  term  "  this  day  hav«'  1  begotten  thee."  1.  Cassiodorus,  Muis, 
lieinke,  Crellier,  Patrizi,  St.  Athanasius,  and  St.  Augustine  exjilain 
the  passage  as  referring  to  the  eternal  generation  of  the  Son  by  the 
Father,  lleb.  i.  5  imi)lies  the  same  interpretation;  at  least  it  excludes 
the  temjjoral  and  figurative  generation  other  authors  give  as  the 
true  exi)lanation  of  the  passage.  According  to  this  view,  the  phrase 
"to-day"  indicates  the  eternal  continuity  of  the  divine  generation 
(cf.  Is.'xliii.  i;J,  where  "to-day"  is  rendered  "from  the  beginning" 
by  th(!  Septuagint). 

2.  Sts.  Cyprian,  Chrysostom,  Jerome,  Fulgentius,  and  after  them 
Steenkiste,"  and  .several  others  understand  the  generation  of  the 
anointed  king  by  Jehovah  as  a])plying  to  the  incarnatiim,  the  incar- 
nating acti(m  being  ascribed  to  (lod  the  Father.  "  To-day  "  nnist 
then  signify  the  definite  point  of  time  at  which  the  mystery  of  the 
incarmition  took  place  (cf.  Cheyne,  ]).  0). 

8.  St.  Hilary,  Theodore  of  Antioch,  Angellius,  Jansenius  of 
(ihent,  a  Lai)i(ie,  Vas(iue/,  Schegg,  and  others  think  that  the  ]>hrase 
"I  have  begotten  thee"  has  reference  to  the  resurrection  of  the 
anointed  king,  since  the  resurrection,  more  than  any  other  event,  man- 
ifested the  fact  of  the  anointed  king's  natural  sonsliip  of  (iod.  This 
interpretation  is  based  on  the  argument  of  St.  i'aid  given  in  Acts  xiii. 
;{:{  ;  it  is  conlirmed  by  the  fact  that  Jesus  declared  on  the  day  of  his 
resurrection  (Matt,  xxviii.  IS)  that  all  jiower  in  heaven  and  on  earth 
was  fiiveii  to  him.  Some  wrileis  point  also  to  Hom.  i.  4.  and  to  the 
analoM-v  that  exists  Itelween  birth  and  resurrection  as  to  additional 
]u-oofs  for  this  third  interpretation. 

4.  H<'eien  explained  the  generation  of  tlie  Son  by  the  Father  spoken 
of  in  the  second  p.sahn  us  the  manifestation  of  the  Son  by  tlie  Katlier, 
Havin"^:   "  This  is  my  beloved  Son,  in  whom  I  am  well  jilca-se*!  "  (Matt. 


THE  MESSTAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  GOB.  173 

The  *  Gentiles  for  thy  inheritance, 

And  the  utmost  parts  of  the  earth  for  thy  possession. 

Thou  shalt  *  rule  them  with  a  rod '  of  iron, 

And  shalt  break  them  in  pieces  like  a  potter's  vessel." 

iii.  17).  The  passage  in  Acts  xiii.  32,  83  is  explained  by  the  authors 
who  agree  with  Beelen  as  meaning  ;  The  promise  which  was  made 
to  our  fathers  (iod  has  fulfilled  for  our  children,  in  constituting 
(showing,  manifesting)  Jesus,  as  is  written  in  the  secmid  psalm. 
Dathe,  after  explaining  St.  Paul's  words  in  the  above  way,  applies 
the  manifestation  in  question  to  the  surrender  of  the  Cientiles  into 
the  power  of  the  Son. 

Finally,  we  must  compare  ;he  Psalmist's  words  with  St.  John's 
gospel  (i.  14):  "  and  the  word  was  made  Hesh,  and  dwelt  amongst  us : 
and  we  saw  his  glorv,  the  glory,  as  it  Avere,  of  the  ONLY-BE(i()TTEN 
OF  THE  FATHER,  full  of  grace  and  truth,"  and  with  Heb.  i.  8  : 
"  but  to  the  Son  :  thy  throne,  O  God,  is  for  ever  and  ever  :  a  sceptre 
of  justice  is  the  sceptre  of  thy  kingdom." 

••  Gentiles — Utmost  parts.  What  must  be  understood  by  the  Gen- 
tiles promised  to  the  Son  is  plain  from  the  parallel  terms  "the 
utmost  parts  of  the  earth."  Some  writers  explain  this  last  phra.se  of 
Palestine  alone  by  comparing  it  with  Dent,  xxxiii.  17  and  Amos  viii. 
12.  But  a  comparison  with  I.  Kings  ii.  10  ;  Ps.  xxi.  (xxii  )  28  ;  Ixvi. 
(Ixvii.)  8;  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.)  8;  Prov.  xxx.  4,  as  well  as  the  authority 
of  Haymo,  Bellarmiiie,  and  numerous  other  interpreters  lead  us  to 
apply  the  passage  to  the  whole  earth,  or  to  all  its  inhabitants.  Christ 
seeius  to  allude  to  this  ])salm  in  the  wofcls  :  "  All  power  is  given  to 
me  in  heaven  and  in  earth  "  (Matt,  xxviii.  18) ;  and  again,  "you  shall 
be  witnesses  unto  me  in  Jeru;  alem,  and  in  Judca,  and  in  Samaria, 
and  even  to  the  utmost  part  of  the  earth  "  (Acts  i.  8  ;  cf.  Cheyne,  "  Book 
of  Psalms,"  p.  0). 

'  Inheritance  —  Possession.  "  Inheritance  "  and  "possession  "  differ 
in  this,  that  the  former  denotes  what  is  possessed  by  virtue  of  son- 
ship  ;  the  latter,  whatever  is  held  by  right  of  property  or  dominion 
(cf.  Gen.  xlvii.  11  and  Lev.  xiv.  34).  As  to  the  stability  of  the 
inheritance  among  the  Jews,  compare  Num.  xxiii.  1-11  ;  xxxvi.,  and 
especially  Lev.  xxv.  13  and  xxvii.  24. 

*  Rule— Break.  In.stead  of  the  i)hra^e  "  thou  shalt  rule,"  which  is 
found  in  the  Vulgate,  Ethiopic,  and  Syriac  versions,  and  also  in  St. 
Jerome's  translation,  the  C'haldee  version  reads:  "thou  .shalt  break 
them  in  pieces."  Doderlein,  Kijhler,  Ilgen,  and  many  otlier  scholars 
interpret  the  pa.ssage  as  the  former  versions  do  ;  but  they  must  either 
change  the  Hebrew  vowel-points  or  admit  an  unusual  grammatical 
form  in  the  text.  Taking  the  text  as  it  is,  and  not  recurring  to  a 
mer(dy  possible  verl) -formation,  we  must  render  the  jjassage  in  ac- 
cordance with  tlie  ("haldee  version.  Jarchi  and  Kimchi  too  agree 
with  the  version  "thou  shalt  break,"  "thou  shalt  dash  them." 
Moreover,  the  i)arallel  menil)er  "thou  shalt  break  them  in  pieces" 
refpiires  a  similar  meaning  in  the  first  phra^;e.  Since  there  is  ques- 
tion only  of  the  rel)ellious  suljjects,  we  cannot  infer  any  harshness  of 
the  iMessianic  rule  from  this  interpretation.  Christ's  treatment  of 
his  faith Inl  servants  is  not  described  in  th(>  jtsalm. 

■"  Rod  of  iron.     The  phrast;  "  lod  of  iron  "  some  writers  interpn^t  as 


174  OENEALOGY  OF  TlIK  MESSIAS. 

And  now,  O  yo  kings,  nnderstand, 
Kcceivo  instruction  you  tiiat  judge  the  earth. 
Serve  ye  tiie  Lord  witii  fear, 
And  "rejoice  unto  liini  witli  trembling. 
'  Embrace  disciphne,  lest  at  any  time  the  *  Lord  be  angry 

"  sceptre  of  iron  "  (Stcenkiste) ;  others  exphiin  it  as  the  iron  shepherd's 
crook  (Staiige)  ;  others  uf^itin  see  in  it  a  staff  or  did)  of  iron  (Lacke- 
niaclier),  while  BeUarmine  and  Lindau  translate  the  jjassage  "  witli 
an  iron  power."  It  must  he  remarked  that  the  ex])ression  does  not 
necessarily  imply  a  sceptre  or  rod  of  iron,  hut  it  may  refer  to  an  in- 
strument studded  with  iron  (cf.  Cheyne,  "l^ook  of  Psalms,"  p.  6).  The 
plotter's  vessel  was  jjroverhial  for  its  fragility  and  uselessness  after 
breaking.  Hence  the  anointed  king  will  destnjy  his  enemies  with 
ease,  and  ruin  them  thoroughly  ((;f.  St.  John  xxvii.  1,  2:  "  Leather, 
.  .  .  glorify  thy  son  .  .  .  :  as  thou  hast  given  liim  power  over  all 
tlesh.  that  he  may  give  eternal  lift;  to  all"). 

'  Fourth  Stanza.  'I'he  fourth  stanza  contains  an  address  of  the 
Psalmist  to  the  kings  of  the  earth.  C'almet  tells  us  that  the  persons 
here  addressed  are  variously  interpreted.  Some  commentators  think 
tliat  the  Psalmist  addresses  all  kings  in  general  ;  others  restrict  the 
meaning  to  the  rebel  kings,  of  whom  there  was  (juestion  in  the  first 
stanza  ;  others  again  follow  St.  .b-rome,  who  a])plies  tlie  prophet's 
warning  to  the  apostles,  the  princes  and  rulers  of  the  ("hurch. 
"Judges  of  the  earth  "  is  a  ternj  jiarallel  to  the  word  "king."  In- 
stead of  the  two  phrases  "  undenstand  "  and  "receive  instruction," 
the  better  reading  is  "act  wisely"  and  "receive  correction;"  for 
the  Ilelu-ew  text  suggests  this  latter  meaning. 

•  Rejoice  with  trembling.  The  passage  which  is  commonly  trans- 
lated "rejoice  unto  him  with  trembling"  has  given  rise  to  a  great 
varietv  of  o])inions.  Instead  of  the  first  part  of  the  phrase,  Hudinger 
]H'ri])hrasticaliy  translates  "  rejoice  in  him  and  in  your  worship  of 
him  ;"  ("amjxnsis,  "  rejoice  that  you  have  obtained  such  a  iving  ;  " 
Ilgen,  "trembling  c(msecrate  to  him  joyous  dances;"  Abul  Walid. 
"  be  ye  moved  with  trend)ling  ;  "  Schulz,  "  surround  him  ;  "  Paulus, 
"rejoice  abundantly;"  Michaelis,  "exult  with  fear;"  and  finally 
Jarchi  ])araphrases  the  ])assage  as  follows:  "since  fear  shall  take 
hold  of  hypocrites,  do  ye  then  exult  and  rejoice,  if  ye  worshi])  the 
Lord  ?"  The  meaning  of  joy  and  exultation  is  on  the  whole  tin;  most 
jirobable,  indicating  that  the  Lor<l  must  lie  served  with  fear,  but  that 
the  fear  sliould  bealilial  f<'ar.  Hut  Ilengstenberg  is  wrong  when  he 
thinks  of  a  merely  external  manifestation  of  gladness.  Holh  the 
signification  of  the  words  and  the  dignity  of  Jehovah  recpiire  tridy 
intenuil  sentiments  of  joy  (cf.  ()s.  x.  5). 

•'  Embrace  discipline.  The  next  verse,  whi<h  reads  in  our  transla 
tion  "enibraci'  discii>line."  has  wonderfidly  exercised  the  ingenuity 
of  interpri'ters.  The  \'ul^^ate  version  follows  the  Septn.-igint  ; 
llie  .Araliic  and  Chaldee  versions  too  interpret  the  jiassage  in  ne;irly 
the  same  way,  rendering  it  "adhere  to  discipline  "  and  "receive  ye 
discipline"  (instriu'tion)  (cf.  Hannnidbar  b'ablia,  10,  and  Saidiedrin 
U'ia).  \N'e  must  infer  from  tln-se  ren<lerings  that  the  former  Hebrew 
text  differed    from   the   present.     Kor  if  we  adheri-  faithfully  to  the 


rilE  MESSIAS  18   TUE  SON  OF  GOD.  175 

And  you  perish  ^  from  the  just  wuy 

When  "his  wnitli  sliiill  be  kindled  in  ji  short  time. 

Blessed  are  all  they  that  shall  trust  in  him. 

present  Hebrew  readnig-,  we  must  render  "kiss  ye  the  son."  This 
rendering  is  found  in  Pesh.  and  Aben  Ezra  ;  St.  Jerome  in  his  com- 
mentary rendtTS  "adore  (adorate)  the  son."  The  explanations 
offered  by  Ca})i)ell,  the  younger  Euxtorf,  Viccars,  and  other 
scholars  are  nothing  but  conjecture.  For  some  change  the  Hebrew 
word  "  nashslieku  "  (kiss  ye)  into  "  nassegu  "  (obtain,  overtake  ye), 
while  others  nuiintain  that  the  expression  "  kiss  ye  "  metaphorically 
signifies  "embrace,"  since  we  eagerly  lay  hold  upon  whatever  we 
kiss.  Aquila  translates  the  i)assage  "  venerate  in  sincerity;"  Sym- 
machus,  "worship  in  purity;"  St.  Jerome,  "adore  with  purity;" 
Doderlein  and  llgen,  "kiss  ye  him  whom  he  hath  cliosen  ;  "  BrliU 
and  Cheyne  amend  the  text  into  "seek  ye  his  face;"  Drusius 
paraplirases  the  verse:  "  Receive  this  person  as  your  lord  and  king, 
and  yield  him  the  obedience  and  lidelity  of  subjects."  To  under- 
stand this  last  interpretation  bi'tler  we  must  call  to  mind  that  among 
the  Hebrews  the  kiss  was  in  ancient  times  the  symbol  of  the  highest 
respect.  Thus  were  idols  worshipped,  as  we  see  from  HI.  Kings 
xix.  18  and  Usee  xiii.  3  ;  and  thus,  too,  were  kings  acknowledged, 
as  appears  from  I.  Kings  x.  1  (cf.  Luke  vii.  ;3S).  Job  also  shows  that 
among  the  Hebrews  "  to  kiss  "  often  had  the  meaning  of  worshipping 
(xxxi.  20,  27).  Comparing  now  the  context  of  the  passage  in  (pies- 
tion,  it  seems  probable  that  we  must  adhere  to  the  strict  Hebrew 
text,  "kiss  (i.e.,  worship,  or  do  royal  homage  to)  the  son."  The  in- 
terpretation of  (lenebrard  and  Titelmann,  "embrace  the  doctrine," 
has  had  a  certain  celebrity  in  its  own  day.  Eickell  looks  upon  the 
words  as  an  interpolated  gloss,  merely  intended  to  show  the  Messianic 
character  of  the  passage. 

••  The  Lord.  The  Lord  iu  the  phrase  "  lest  at  any  time  the  Lord 
be  angry  "  is  by  some  understood  to  indicate  Jehovah,  by  others  the 
anointed  king.  The  former  opinion  is  principally  based  on  the 
Septuagint  version,  in  which  the  definite  subject  is  explicitly  ex- 
pressed ;  the  latter  opinion  rests  on  the  Hebrew  text,  in  which  no 
subject-noun  is  expressed,  and  therefore  the  one  of  the  preceding 
phrase  is  naturally  supplied.  The  Hebrew  reads  thus  :  "  kiss  ye  the 
son,  lest  he  be  angry." 

^  From  the  way.  Instead  of  the  next  phrase  "  and  you  perish 
from  the  just  way,"  tiie  Hebrew  text  reads  "  and  you  perish  from 
the  way."  Capped  and  Venema  explain  this  to  mean  "  suddenlv  ;  " 
for  a  man  who  perishes  on  the  way  perishes  suddenly  "(cf. 
Ex.  xxxiii.  3).  Aben  Ezra,  Schroder,  and  Storr  explain  it  as  meaning 
"perish  as  to  the  way,"  i.e.,  "lest  your  way  perish."  Eichhorn 
interprets  the  "way"  as  equivalent  to  "life,"  and  translates  ac- 
cordingly. The  Septuagint,  followed  by  the  Vulgate,  translates 
"and  you  perish  from  the  just  way"  or  the  way  of  rectitude,  i.e., 
the  way  that  leads  to  the  anointed  king.  Some  scholars  prefer  the 
interpretation,  "  lest  you  perish  on  the  way,"  i.e.,  during  the  progress 
of  your  rebellion,  before  you  have  attained  your  end. 

*  When  his  wrath.     Some  interpreters  connect  the  last  two  verses, 


170  GENEALOGY  OE  Tim  MESSIAS. 

Couollahy:   The  Messias  is  the  Sox  of  God. 

1,  In  the  Light  of  Christian  Revelation.— It  li;i8 
boon  sliowii  in  the  cxplaiuition  of  the  third  stuiiza  that  tlic 
anoiiitod  king  is  the  son  of  God  (lleb.  i.  5;  v.  5;  Acts 
xiii.  32,  33;  iv.  25,  2G;  cf.  Kilber,  Analysis  Bibl.  ii.  p.  S, 
notes);  we  have  also  seen  that  the  psalm  is  Messianic,  i.e., 
that  the  anointed  king  is  identical  with  the  promised 
Messias.  The  inference  that  the  Slessias  is  the  son  of 
God  is  therefore  unavoidable.  Those  who  contend  that 
this  sonship  may  be  one  by  adoption,  not  by  generation, 
must  be  referred  to  the  text  of  the  psalm  itself.  For 
though  tlie  title  "son  of  God"  is  througliout  the  Old 
Testament  not  unfre(iuently  given  to  the  earthly  leaders 
of  the  theocracy,  the  friends  and  servants  of  (}od,  still  the 
phrase  "  I  have  begotten  thee,"  as  even  JJe  Wette  con- 
fesses, nowhere  indicates  merely  adojitive  sonship  when 
(Jod  himself  em})loys  it.  Ik'sides,  in  Ps.  xliv.  (xlv.)  7  and 
cix.  (ex.)  5  the  same  person  is  called  Lord  and  (Jod,  and 
in  the  last  but  one  verse  of  Ps.  ii.  he  is  mimed  "8on." 
Consequently,  we  must  again  infer  that  the  anointed  king's 
sonship  surpasses  a  merely  adoptive  one.  Finally,  accord- 
ing to  the  2)resent  Hebrew  text,  wc  must  read:  "Kiss  the 
son,  lest  he  become  «ingry  •  .  . ,"  so  that  our  trust  must  be 
placed  in  the  son.  But  we  can  trust  in  Jehovah  alone  ac- 
cording to  Ps.  cxvii.  (cxviii.)  9;  cxlv,  (cxlvi.)  3;  Mich, 
vii.  ."). 

2.  In  the  Light  of  the  Old  Testament.  — But  lest  we 
sliduld  seem  to  explain  the  i)r()])hecy  of  Ps.  ii.  entirely  in 

"  w  lieu  his  wrath  shnll  he  kindled."  «'tc'.,  with  what  prcccth's  by  the 
ODnjiiiictioii  "for"  or  "  iiccaiisf  ;  "  others  i)rel'er  to  take  tlieiii  al) 
solutely.  The  Ilehrew  word  wliich  is  reixlered  in  oiir  versions  "  in 
a  short  time"  is  sometimes  referred  to  (piantity,  thus;  "when  his 
wratii  shall  he  kindh-d  (even)  a  little."  As  to  tlie  meaninf^;  of  the 
Ilehrew  word  we  may  compare  Prov.  x.  20.  'I'he  jirimary  meaning;: 
(d'  the  expression  rendered  "trust"  seems  to  ho  "to  ^et  under 
tlie  folds  of  the  garments  of  a  ])erson  in  ))ower. "  'J'o  extend 
one's  garments  to  a  ])erson  is  amonj^  the  .\ralis  a  sijjn  of  ])r<)te<-tion 
and  security.  W-iu-rahle  liede  renuirks  that  those  trust  in  (iod  who 
have  the  con.sciousness  of  having  deserved  the  divine  favor. 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  GOD.  Ill 

the  light  of  the  New  Testament  and  of  Christian  Theology, 
we  must  consider  in  what  light  the  Messias  was  re- 
garded even  in  the  Synagogue.  We  have  already  seen  that 
both  Jarchi  and  Kimchi  testify  to  the  traditional  Messianic 
interpretation  of  Ps.  ii, ;  we  might  consequently  infer  a 
priori  that  the  ancient  Synagogue  must  have  expected  a 
Messias  who  would  be  in  a  special  way  the  Son  of  God. 
This  inference  we  shall  see  amply  confirmed  by  un- 
suspected testimony.  For  Ave  shall  investigate  in  the  first 
place  on  what  grounds  Jarchi  and"  Kimchi  have  asserted 
the  existence  of  a  Jewish  tradition  for  the  Messianic  char- 
acter of  Ps.  ii. ;  in  the  second  place  we  shall  give  a  few 
testimonies  to  show  what  manner  of  Divine  sonship  was 
attributed  to  the  Messias  by  the  learned  writers  of  the 
Synagogue;  finally  will  be  given  the  Jewish  exegesis  of  a 
few  prophecies  that  the  Synagogue  considered  as  nearly 
related  to  Psalm  ii. 

A.  Rabbinic  Testimony  for  the  Messianic  Character  of 
Ps.  II, — a.  The  psalm  will  be  verified  in  the  time  of  Gog 
and  Magog.  In  Mechilta  (fol.  3,  3)  we  read:  "In  future 
times,  too,  Gog  and  Magog  shall  fall  down  before  Israel; 
David  shall  see  it  and  exclaim,  '  Why  have  the  Gentiles 
raged  ?'"  The  Talmud  (Abodah  zarah,  fol.  3,  h),  treating 
of  the  Messianic  times,  has  the  following:  "When  the  war 
of  Gog  and  Magog  begins,  they  will  say  to  them:  '  Against 
whom  have  you  gone  forth?'  They  answer:  'Against  the 
Lord  and  against  his  Christ.' "  Finally,  Midrash  Estlicr 
(fol.  107,  4;  ef.  Tanchuma,  fol.  55,  2;  Vayikra  Eabba, 
sect,  2T  fin.)  confirms  the  same  statement:  "Rabbi  Levi 
has  said :  Gog  and  Magog  too  will  say  in  the  times  of  the 
Messias:  Those  who  have  done  anything  against  Israel 
before  us  have  acted  foolishly,  for  they  (the  Israelites) 
have  a  patron  in  heaven.  We  shall  not  act  in  the  same 
M'ay,  but  we  shall  first  attack  the  patron,  and  afterwards 
the  Israelites.  The  kings  of  the  earth  stood  up,  and  tlie 
princes  met  together  against  the  Lord  and  against  his 
Christ.     Then  God  will  say  to  them:  You  wicked  men. 


178  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  ME8SIA8. 

will  yt'ii  atlack  nie  ?  How  niaiiy  armies,  how  many  tluiiider- 
bolts,  and  how  many  Seraphim  and  angels  do  1  not  possess  ? 
My  jwwer  shall  come  forth  and  strive  against  you." 
Jewish  exegesis  lias,  therefore,  identified  the  war  of  Gog 
and  Magog  against  Israel  with  the  rebellion  described  in 
Ps.  ii.  But  the  same  war  will  take  ))lace  in  the  times  of 
the  Messias,  as  is  clearly  understood  from  the  second  and 
third  of  the  above  testimonies.  Compare  also  Ezech. 
xxxviii.  2  and  xxxix. 

b.  Again,  the  Jewish  tradition  holds  that  to  the  anointed 
king  of  I's.  ii.  all  power  will  be  given,  and  all  homage  due. 
The  Zohar  (IJeut.  fol.  109,  col.  4:)(})  comments  on  the 
})hrase  "kiss  the  son"  (reiulered  in  our  versions  "embrace 
disci])line'").  "  Kiss  ye  the  hands  ol  the  son,  for  (Jod  has 
given  him  power  over  all,  so  that  all  must  serve  him.  For 
lie  is  crowned  with  justice  and  mercy.  \\(i  who  deserves 
justice  shall  come  to  judgment;  whosoever  is  worthy  of 
mercy  shall  obtain  mercy.  Whosoever  is  not  willing  to 
})raise  this  son,  his  sins  shall  be  brought  forth  before  the 
holy  king,  and  before  the  heavenly  mother."  If  we  com- 
pare this  description  of  the  anointed  king  with  the  de- 
scription of  the  Messias  given  in  the  numifestly  ^Fessianic 
passages  of  Isaias  (ix.  G  f. ;  xi.  2  f.),  we  see  again  that 
Jewish  exegesis  has  identified  the  anointed  king  of  V^.  ii. 
with  the  Messias. 

c.  But  we  go  a  stej)  farther;  tiie  eai'liest  Jewish  com- 
mentaries exi)ressly  stated  the  identity  of  the  Messias  with 
the  hero  of  Ps.  ii.  AVe  read  in  the  Zohar  (den.  fol.  77, 
col.  293):  "  Beginning  at  that  very  time  King  Messias  will 
rise  up,  and  then  all  (ientiles  will  be  gathered  to  battle 
against  Jerusalem,"  as  David  says:  "  The  kings  of  the  i-arth 
stood  u})."  The  same  work  has  the  following  passage 
(Hx.  fol.  24,  col.  90):  "The  holy  ami  all-blessed  God  jtuts 
on  power  against  the  Gentiles,  who  rise  up  against  him, 
as  is  written:  and  the  })rinces  nu't  together  against  the 
Lord  and  against  his  Chiist.  and  this  shall  haiipen  in  the 
time  (»f   King  Messias."      Bereshith   liabba  (sect.  44,  fol. 


THE  MES81AS  IS  THE  SON  OF  GOD.  179 

43,  4;  Mechilki  and  Seder  'Oliim  in  Yalkiit  Siineoiii  11. 
fol.  27,  4)  says:  "God  has  said  to  three  persons:  '  Ask  of 
me;'  to  Soh^nion,  to  Achaz,  and  to  tlie  Messias.''  The 
Tahnud  is  not  less  explicit  in  the  Messianic  interpretation 
of  Ps,  ii.  The  treatise  Succah  (fol.  52,  1)  says:  "Our 
Rabhis  teach:  the  holy  God,  blessed  be  he,  says  to  the 
Messias,  the  son  of  David:  Ask  of  me."  The  Midrash 
Tehillim  (ad  Ps.  cxx.  7,  fol.  45,  4)  gives  a  commentary 
on  Ps.  ii.  9:  "The  holy  God,  blessed  be  he,  says  to  the 
Messias:  Thou  shalt  rule  them  with  a  rod  of  iron."  Tiie 
same  Midrash  in  its  commentary  on  Ps.  ii.  7  has  the  fol- 
lowing passage:  "Preaching  his  commandment — this  lias 
been  preached  long  ago  in  the  Law,  in  the  Prophets,  and 
in  the  doctrinal  books:  In  the  Law,  Ex.  iv.  22:  Israel 
is  my  son,  my  first-born;  in  tlie  Pro})liets,  Is.  lii.  115: 
Behold,  my  servant  shall  understand;  and  xlii.  1  refers 
to  the  same:  Behold  my  servant,  I  will  uphold  him;  in  the 
doctrinal  books,  Ps.  ex.  1,  The  Lord  said  to  my  Lord;  and 
Ps.  ii.  7:  The  Lord  hath  said  to  me,  thou  art  my  son;  and 
again  Dan.  vii.  23;  and  lo  .  .  .  with  the  clouds  of  heaven." 
The  Jewish  teaching  concerning  the  Messianic  reference  of 
Ps.  ii.  is  therefore  certain  beyond  all  doubt. 

B.  The  Divine  Sonship  of  the  Messias  as  taught  in  the 
Synagogue. — a.  The  anointed  king  is  represented  as  the  son 
of  a  king.  Mechilta  (Yalkut  Simeoni  II.  fol.  53,  3),  wheii 
commenting  on  the  words  "  against  the  Lord  and  against 
his  CHirist,"  has  the  parable  of  a  robber  who  stands  de- 
fiantly behind  a  royal  castle  and  holds  the  following  momj- 
logue:  "  If  I  seize  the  king's  son,  I  shall  kill  him  and  cru- 
cify him,  that  he  may  die  a  painful  death;"  but  the  holy 
Spirit  derides  him,  as  is  written:  "He  that  dwelleth  in 
heaven  shall  laugh  at  them." 

h.  Again,  the  Messias  is  represented  as  having  no  father. 
Bereshith  Rabba  (cf.  Raym.  Martini,  part  iii.,  dist.  iii.  8, 
5,  et  Hier.  de  S.  Fide  i.  5)  has  the  following  passage: 
"Rabbi  Barachias  speaks  thus:  God  says  to  the  Israelites: 
You  tell  me  (Lam.  v.  3)  we  are  become  orphans  without  a 


180  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MES8IAS. 

fjitlier.  Neitlier  has  the  '  (loel'  a  fatlier,  wliom  I  sliall 
raise  lip  unto  you;  according  to  Zacliarias  vi.  12:  liehold 
a  mail,  the  Orient  (Zcniach)  is  liis  name,  and  under  him 
sliall  he  spring  up.  And  Is.  liii.  2  says:  and  he  shall 
grow  up  as  a  tender  plant  before  him.  Of  the  same  [per- 
son] David  says  in  Ps,  cix.  (ex.)  3:  from  the  mother  of 
tiie  dawn  tiie  dew  of  thy  youth  has  come  unto  thee  [for  the 
different  translations  of  this  passage  see  the  commentary 
on  Ps.  cix.  (ex.)];  and  in  Ps.  ii.  7:  The  Lord  hath  said 
to  me:  thou  art  my  son.'' 

c.  In  the  third  })laee,  the  Messias  is  declared  to  be  God's 
Son.  Midrash  Tehillim  commenting  on  the  words,  "  thou 
art  my  son,  this  day  have  I  begotten  thee,"  has  the  fol- 
lowing i)assage:  "  When  tlie  time  of  the  Messias  shall  come, 
tiien  the  holy  God,  praised  be  his  name,  shall  say  to  him: 
It  is  my  duty  to  make  a  new  covenant  with  him.  For  he 
says.  To-day  have  I  begotten  thee.  Then  is  his  hour,  when 
he  shall  be  declared  as  his  son." 

d.  Finally,  the  Messias  is  openly  represented  as  the  Sun 
of  God.  Zohar  (Gen.  fol.  88,  col.  348)  ])lainly  expresses 
this:  "This  is  the  faithful  shei)herd.  Of  thee  it  is  said, 
'kiss  the  son;'  thou  art  tiie  prince  of  the  Israelites,  the 
Lord  of  the  earth,  the  Lord  of  the  ministering  angels,  the 
son  of  the  Most  High,  the  son  of  the  holy  God,  blessed  be 
he,  and  the  gracious  Shekhinah."  Consequently,  we  may 
safely  maintain  that  the  Synagogue  understood  Ps.  ii.  not 
only  of  the  Messias,  but  also  of  a  Messias  who  would  be  the 
tSon  of  (Jod. 

e.  To  give  this  last  assertion  a  still  more  solid  foundation, 
we  shall  next  consider  several  passages  of  ancient  Iial)binic 
writers  containing  the  same  doctrint',  though  they  are  not 
connected  with.  Ps.  ii.  Some  of  these  })assages  reveal  this 
truth  implicitly  and  obscurely;  others  state  it  clearly  and 
unmistakably.  The  former  may  be  reduced  to  the  jilaces 
in  which  the  Messias  is  called  "the  Middle  Column,"  "the 
lower  Adam,"  "  the  jilant  from  bt'low  and  above;"  the  latter 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  GOD.  181 

is  found  in  those  authors  who  call  the  Messias  the  first- 
born, the  Son  of  God. 

I.  Implicit  Testimony. — <(.  The  Messias  is  the  Middle 
Column. — Tikkune  Zohar  (c.  24,  fol.  GS,  2)  tells  us:  "It  is 
said  of  the  Middle  Column:  Israel  is  my  son,  my  first-born" 
(Ex.  iv.  22).  Here  it  sufiices  to  recall  what  is  written 
concerning  the  Middle  Column  in  the  Zohar  (Numb.  fol. 
91,  col.  364):  "The  Middle  Column  is  the  Metatron  who, 
being  beauty  and  comeliness,  establishes  peace  with  God  in 
the  highest:  his  name  is  like  the  name  of  his  Lord,  being 
made  after  his  image  and  likeness;  he  comprises  within 
himself  all  qualities  from  above  downward,  and  from  below 
upward  (i.e.,  the  divine  and  the  human  natui'e),  and  he 
unites  everything  in  the  middle."  AVe  must  only  add  that 
Metatron  is  the  name  of  the  great  Presence-angel,  Avho 
guarded  Israel  in  the  Old  Testameiit,  and  who  is  identical 
with  the  Messias  (cf.  I.  Myer,  Qabbalah,  \)\).  365  1). 

1).  The  Messias  is  the  Terrestrial  Adam. — Prov.  xxx.  4 
reads:  "Who  hath  ascended  up  into  heaven,  and  de- 
scendeth  ?  who  hath  held  the  wind  in  his  hands?  who  hath 
bound  up  the  wjiters  together  as  in  a  garment  ?  who  hath 
raised  up  all  the  borders  of  the  earth  ?  what  is  his  name, 
and  what  is  the  name  of  his  son,  if  thou  knowest  ?  "  Re- 
ferring to  this  verse  the  Zohar  (Gen.  fol.  39,  col.  154;  Tik- 
kune Zohar  c.  69,  fol.  108,  2)  says:  "What  is  his  name? 
The  upper  or  celestial  Adam.  What  is  the  name  of  his 
son  ?  The  lower  or  terrestrial  Adam."-  Again  in  Zohar 
(Dent.  fol.  119,  col.  473)  we  read:  "  The  words  'what  is  the 
name  of  his  son?' refer  to  the  faithful  shepherd,  i.e.,  to 
the  Messias."  Consequently,  tlie  Messias,  the  terrestrial 
Adam,  is  the  son  of  the  celestial  Adam.  It  follows  from 
these  passages,  at  least,  that  the  Messias  was  expected  to 
have  a  celestial  origin. 

c.  The  Messias  is  the  riant  from  Below  and  Above.— 
Bereshith  Piabba  (sect.  90,  fol.  91,  3,  part  iii.  dist.  i.  10, 
12),  interpreting  Cant.  viii.  12,  "  my  vineyard  is  before  me," 
says:  "This  is  King  Messias,  as  Ps.  Ixxx.  16  has  it:  And 


182  o'KNKALoar  of  tiik  mkssias. 

perfect  tlio  sumo  wiiicli  tliy  ri<j;lit  luuid  Imlli  plaiitctl. 
Thero  is  a  tworulcl  plaiitutioii  (ti  celt'stial  aiul  a  ti'n'cstrial). 
The  lower  one  is  Abraham,  but  the  joint  upper  and  lower 
one  is  the  Messias,  according  to  Mich.  ii.  \'.\:  'He  shall  go 
up  tliat  shall  open  tLe  way  before  them.'"  Here  too  the 
twofold  nature  of  tlie  Messias  is  obscurely  indicated. 

II.  Explicit  Testimony. — a.  The  Messias  is  the  First- 
Born. — Turning  now  to  clearer  passages,  we  may  in  the 
first  place  return  to  Ex.  iv.  22:  ''Israel,  my  first-born" 
are  words  applied  to  the  Messias,  not  only  by  Jewisli  writers, 
but  also  by  St.  Matthew.  We  read  in  Myer  (Qabbalah, 
I'.p.  2G1  f.) :  "  From  its  union  with  Kether,out  of  which  it  is 
enumated,  and  to  wliich  it  returns,  proceeds  C'hokhmah,  i.e., 
Wisdom,  the  Word  or  Son,  tlie  Logos,  called  the  First- 
born .  .  ."  And  again  (ibid.):  "It  (Wisdotn)  is  also 
called  by  the  (Qabbalah  '  tlii'  only  begotten  Son,'  'the  First- 
born of  Eloliim,'  etc." 

AVliat  is  im])ortant  here  is  the  identity  of  Chokliinali 
or  Wisdom  (Logos,  Word)  with  the  Messias,  as  St.  Joliii 
has  established  it.  Again,  Tikkune  Zohar  (c.  14,  i)r.) 
has  the  following  passage:  "Come  and  see.  Of  Wisdom  it 
is  written,  Ex.  xiii.  2:  Sanctify  unto  me  every  first-boi-n. 
For  every  first-born  is  called  after  her  (Wisdom's)  name. 
Hence  the  Shekhinab  too  is  named  the  First-born.  Of 
Wisdom  it  is  clearly  said  in  Ezech.  xliv.  30:  The  first- 
fruits  (literally,  the  beginning)  of  all  the  first-born.  His 
first-born  son  is  the  first  of  all,  and  the  Middle  C'olumn." 
Now  we  have  already  seen  that  the  Messias  was  called  both 
"  Middle  Column  "  and  "  Shekhinab."  Consequently  "  the 
first-born  "  M'as  one  of  tlie  Messianic  titles. 

b.  The  Messias  is  fhc  Son  of  (uxl. — Sbemolh  Kaliba 
(sect.  c.  3.'),  fol.  133,2)  reads:  "We  find  that  in  future 
times  all  nations,  but  Egypt  first  of  all,  shall  offer  gifts  to 
King  j\Iessias.  And  lest  anyone  should  think  that  God 
would  not  acce})t  the  gift  from  them,  the  holy  (Jod,  blessed 
be  he,  says  to  the  Messias:  Accept  them  from  them. 
From  that  time  gifts  have  been  otfered  to  my  son  in  Egy])t, 


THE  MESSJA8  IS  THE  SON  OF  OOD.  183 

as  is  written,  Ps.  Ixvii.  (Ixviii.)  32:  Ambassadors  shall  come 
out  of  Egypt."  The  Talmud  repeats  this  passage,  sub- 
stituting "to  my  sons"  instead  of  "to  my  son,"  so  as  not 
to  favor  the  Christian  teaching  that  the  Messias  is  the  Son 
of  God.  What  has  been  said  establishes  the  traditional 
teaching  of  the  Synagogue  concerning  the  divine  sonship 
of  the  Messias  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt;  for  a  still 
fuller  statement  of  the  same  see  the  section  on  the  Divinity 
of  the  Messias. 


184  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 


CHAPTER    11. 

THE  MESSIAH  IS  THE  SEED  OF  THE  WOMAN.  Gen.  in.  1-19. 

Introduction. 

1.  Mythical  Explanation.— Tlio  Mosaic  history  of  our 
first  parents'  fall  cannot  he  rcgai-detl  as  a  mere  myth, 
coiicorniug  tlic  comlition  of  i)rimitive  man,  similar  (o  tlie 
myths  existing  in  other  nations.  This  view,  whethei-  it 
represents  the  Mosaic  account  as  a  mere  pliiloso])hic 
theory  concerning  the  origin  of  evil  (TJosenmiiller),  or  as 
the  figurative  expression  of  sensual  allurement  (Ileuss,  etc.), 
is  in  either  case  equally  untenable.  Not  as  if  we  denied 
the  simihirity  between  the  heathen  myths  and  the  ]Iel)iX'w 
account  concerning  the  primeval  condition  of  mankind; 
but  we  maintain  that  this  very  similarity  is  more  satis- 
factorily exi)lained  if  the  liistoric  character  of  Moses*  story 
be  admitted  than  if  it  be  denied.  For  if  all  is  mere  myth, 
why  have  all  the  nations  of  antiquity  developed  mytholo- 
gies which  are  identical  rather  than  similar?  And  if  it  bo 
said  that  the  critical  analysis  of  the  Pentateuch  suggests 
the  mythical  character  of  the  Mosaic  story,  we  point  to  the 
fact  that  this  is  incompatible  with  the  Mosaic  origin  of  the 
J'enlateiicli. 

2.  Symbolical  Explanation.— Still,  this  latter  argument 

does  not  weaken  1  luf  theory  ])roj)o.-;ed  by  l*hilo,  though  it 
destroys  Ifeuss'  |>osilion  on  the  jiresent  question.  IMiilo 
(cf.  Demmidi  opilicio,  j).  ".Ml,  c.  ed.  FraiUMtfordia-,  M.lK". 
.\.\I.\.)  believes  that  the  serpent  luenl  ioiicd  in  llic  third 
chapter  of  (ieiicsis  is  a  syuilxd  of  i-'ensiial  pleasui'c.  'i'he 
.state  of  paradise  applies  only  to  the  time  A\hen  Adam   was 


THE  MESSIA8  IS  THE  SEED  OF  THE   WOMAN.  185 

alone  on  earth ;  having  given  way  to  their  desire  of  off- 
spring, Adam  and  Eve  had  naturally  to  bear  all  the  conse- 
quences: Eve  had  to  suffer  the  pangs  of  childbirth,  Adam 
was  subjected  to  the  annoying  cares  of  his  household. 
Both  were  thus  condemned  to  a  severe  punishment  for 
yielding  to  their  wanton  desire.  The  serpent  is  said  to  be 
doomed  to  eat  the  dust  of  the  earth,  because  man's  pleasure 
is  of  a  low  kind,  connected  with  the  world  of  sense  and 
matter.  According  to  this  view,  there  are  only  five 
historical  facts  contained  in  the  first  chapters  of  Genesis: 
1.  The  existence  of  God;  2.  God's  unity;  3.  God's  creation 
of  the  world;  4.  the  unity  of  this  world;  5.  God's  ruling 
providence  over  this  world.  Everything  besides  these  five 
points  is  myth  and  symbol,  serving  merely  as  the  outward 
garb  of  the  hidden  truth. 

3.  Allegorical  Explanation. — The  view  of  Cajetan 
regarding  the  third  chapter  of  Genesis  bears  some  re- 
semblance to  the  theory  of  Philo,  though  it  differs  widely 
enough  from  its  Jewish  prototype  to  avoid  all  theological 
censure.  What  is  called  the  serpent  in  Genesis  is,  accord- 
ing to  Card.  Cajetan,  nothing  but  the  devil  tempting  Eve 
inwardly;  what  is  descril)ed  as  a  dialogue  between  the  ser- 
pent and  Eve  is  a  mere  series  of  suggestions  which  the 
devil  made  in  Eve's  heart.  The  temptation  therefore  and 
the  fall  really  occurred,  but  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
told  is  a  mere  allegory.  A  number  of  Protestant  authors, 
who  reject  Keuss'  theory  according  to  which  Gen.  iii.  is  a 
mythical  representation  of  the  origin  of  sin  in  general, 
still  adhere  to  a  modified  form  of  Cajetan's  view.  Gen.  iii. 
is  a  myth  indeed,  or  an  allegory,  which  does  not  concern 
the  origin  of  sin  in  general,  but  our  first  parents'  sin  in 
particular.  Some  of  tliese  writers  admit  the  jiresence  and 
the  agency  of  the  devil  in  Eve's  temptations,  others  speak 
only  of  the  allurement  of  sensual  pleasure.  Abarbanel's 
explanation,  which  admits  the  presence  of  a  real  serpent, 
but  denies  the  agency  of  the  devil,  whose  conversation  is 
supplied  by  the  thoughts  arising  in  Eve's  mind  when  she 


186  OENEALOOY  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 

saw  the  serpent  eating  of  the  forbidden  fruit,  has  found  so 
little  favor  that  it  is  practically  extinct.  It  will  appear  in 
the  commentary  that  the  mythical  and  allegorical  explana- 
tions of  the  passage  are  incom})atible  with  the  context  and 
the  universal  national  traditions  concerning  the  history  of 
our  first  parents. 

4.  Messianic  Character  of  the  Passage.— 'i'his  is 
proved  by  way  of  corollary  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

Gen.  III.  1-19. 
'  Now  the  serpent  was  more  subtle  than  any  of  the  beasts  of 

'  For  tlie  sake  of  clearness  we  sliall  first  consider  the  temptation  of 
our  first  parents  ;  secondly,  their  sin  ;  and  finally,  the  consequences  of 
their  sin.  In  the  first  \tiut  we  must  again  treat  separately  of  the 
tempter  and  of  the  ])ersnns  tempted. 

1.  The  Temptation  and  Sin. — a.  The  Temptkk. — To  do  justice  to 
this  i)art,  we  must  in(iuire  into  the  external  ai)i)earance  of  the  tempter, 
his  personality,  and  the  way  and  manner  of  the  temptation. 

A.  Tht!  E-vtcriHil  Appt'draiicc  of  tlia  Ti'iupter. — 'J'here  is  no  ade- 
quate reason  for  ahandoning  the  literal  meaning  of  (ienesis  regarding 
tlie  external  appearance  of  tlie  tempter.  The  whole  section  neces- 
sarily implies  a  supernatural  dealing  of  (iod  with  man,  so  that  no 
figurative  meaning  can  explain  away  the  miraculous.  Besides,  the 
literal  meaning  once  disregarded,  we  have  no  sulficient  guide  in 
selecting  the  figurative. 

The  word  nachash  used  in  the  llehrew  text  seems  to  he  cognate  to 
u  verh  meaning  "to  view,"  "to  ol)S«'rve  attentively,"  "to  divine;"  the 
corresponding  noun  signifies  in  one  form  "hrass,"  "  letters;"  in  an- 
other "divination,"  "augury;"  and  in  the  form  iound  in  the  ])resent 
passage  it  denotes  "  a  serpent "  (cf.  Ex.  iv.  3;  vii.  15;  Numb, 
xxi.  6,  7,  \) ;  Dent.  viii.  l"),  etc.).  'i'lie  Fathers  agree  on  this,  as  nuiy 
he  seen  in  Heinke,  A.  T.  t.  ii.  2(i9. 

Tlu^  fanciful  nu'aning  "a]>e,"  given  to  "nachash"  in  Clarke's 
commentary,  is  both  unsatisfactory  and  gronndles.s.  Even  if  we 
ado|)t  the  common  nu'aning  "  serpent,"  our  question  remains  a  diffi- 
cult one.  More  than  forty  species  of  serpents  are  <-numerated  by 
systematic  nomenclat(us  and  travellers  as  occurring  in  northern 
Africa,  Arabia,  and  Syria.  A  definite  answer  caniu)t  be  given  to  tlie 
(pu'stion,  \\  hat  kind  of  serjM'nt  is  intended  in  the  sacred  tt^xtV 
Kugubinns  believes  that  a  basilisk  is  meant  ;  I'ererins  sp<'aks  of  the 
scytalis,  noted  for  its  variegated  and  beantifnl  c(dors  ;  Delrio  con- 
nects tiie  |)resetit  jiassage  with  St.  I-uke  iii.,  and  interprets  "  nac- 
liash  "  as  viper. 

Till-  statement  of  (ienesis,  'tlie  serpent  was  nu)re  subtle  than  any 
of  the  beasts  of  the  i-artli,"  no  more  determines  a  definite  si>ecies  of 
seri)ent  than  it  jiroves  ( 'larke's  inter]iretatioii,  which  we  liave  slateil 
nlM)ve.      Wiiether  thissui>erior  cunning  of  tlu-  ser[>ent  be  real  or  only 


THE  ME88IA8  IS  THE  SEED  OF  THE   WOMAN.  187 

the  earth  which  the  Lord  God  had  made.      And  he  said  to  the 

analogictil,  it  is  well  known  in  Scriptural  language.  Ps.  Ivii.  (Iviii.) 
5  says  :  "their  madness  is  according  to  the  likeness  of  a  serpent: 
like  the  deaf  asp  that  stoppeth  her  ears  "  in  order  not  to  hear  the 
sound  of  the  enchanter.  Gen.  xlix.  17  knows  of  "  a  serpent  in  the 
path,  that  biteth  tlie  horse's  heel  that  the  rider  may  fall  backward." 
Jesus  himself  warns  his  apostles  to  be  "wise  as  serpents  "  (Matthew 
X.  1(5).  This  opinion  regarding  the  serpent's  cunning  probably  has 
its  foundation  in  the  noiseless,  sneaking  manner  in  which  it  ensnares 
its  ]irey,  and  in  the  powerful  instinct  of  self-preservation  through 
which  it  avoids  any  fatal  blow  on  its  head,  its  principal  seat  of  life. 

We  find  the  snake  graphically  represented  in  ancient  inscriptions, 
and  especially  on  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  cylinders.  It  is  certain 
beyond  doubt  that  such  representations  were  religious  symbols  ;  but 
their  precise  signification  still  remains  a  mystery.  On  one  repre- 
sentation in  particular  ((J.  Smith,  ("hald.  (Jen.  p.  85,  f.  301,  305  ; 
Del.  PI).  90)  we  see  a  man  and  a  woman  sitting  on  two  chairs  on 
either  side  of  a  date-tree,  both  stretching  out  their  hands  towards  the 
fruit ;  behind  the  woman's  chair  a  serpent  is  coiletl  up,  the  ht-ad  of 
which  is  reared  up  above  the  woman's  head.  Though  we  cannot 
assert  that  the  history  of  our  first  jjarents'  temptation  and  sin  has 
been  pictured  on  this  cylinder,  still  we  may  draw  the  reader's  atten- 
tion to  the  close  resemblance  between  this  representation  and  the 
story  of  (ienesis  (cf.  Schrader,  K.  A.  T.  37  f.).  In  the  light  of  (len. 
iii.  1-15,  taken  in  its  literal  sense,  we  can  readily  understand  why 
the  serjient  figures  in  the  history,  tlie  creeds,  and  the  legends  of 
nearly  all  ancient  nations,  while  the  mythical  or  allegorical  explana- 
tion of  the  same  passage  leaves  the  agreement  of  mythology  a  mys- 
tery. The  nations  of  the  North  told  of  Jormund's  Gander,  or  Kater, 
the  serpent  of  the  deep.  In  Hindu  lore  there  exist  innumerable 
fables  of  Nagas  and  Naga-kings.  The  serpent  entwined  around  a 
staff  was,  among  the  Romans,  the  symbol  of  health  and  the  distinc- 
tive mark  of  the  (iod  ^-Esculapius.  We  might  perhaps  compare  the 
brazen  serpent  raised  up  in  the  wilderness  (Numb.  xxi.  4-9)  with  the 
above  symbol  of  .i-Bsculapius  and  Hygeia,  did  we  not  know  that  the 
serpent's  longevity  was  proverbial,  so  much  so  that  the  representa- 
tion of  the  common  house-snake,  biting  its  tail,  was  typical  of  eter- 
nity. This  is  not  the  place  to  say  much  of  the  old  dragon-temples, 
which  are  found  from  the  highest  parts  of  Asia  and  Colchis  to  the 
north  of  (ireat  Britain  and  to  the  middle  States  of  our  own  continent; 
the  structures  have  avenues  of  upright  stones,  several  miles  in  length, 
and  are  connected  with  circles  representing  the  mundane  egg.  In 
Egypt  the  serpent- worship  had  struck  such  deep  root  thateven  a 
Christian  sect  of  Ophita^,  or  Ophiani,  arose  as  late  as  the  second  cen- 
tury of  our  era.  Compare  Tertullian,  de  praescrip.  c.  47  ;  Epiphan. 
hteres.  37.  Without  insisting  on  the  absolute  certainty  of  a  connec- 
tion existing  between  all  these  religious  rites  offered  to  the  serpent 
tribe  and  the  serpent's  infiuence  on  the  early  destiny  of  mankind  as 
told  in  Genesis,  we  only  draw  attention  to  the  natural  and  easy  ex- 
planation of  the  universal  religious  awe  and  reverence  paid  to  this 
particular  speci(^s  of  the  animal  kingdom,  if  we  admit  the  story  of 
Genesis  in  its  literal  meaning. 


188  OENRALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

"  woman:  '  "  Why  hath  God  commanded  you,  that  you  should  not 

IV  Tlw  Person  of  the  IVnipter. — In  the  second  place,  a  few  words 
must  be  said  about  tlic  iiersouality  of  tlie  tenijjter  in  jiaradise.  Hoth 
sacred  Scripture  and  tradition  a^ree  in  assigning  tiie  devil  as  the 
tempter  of  Eve.  In  Matthew  xii.  29;  .lohn  viii.  44;  Acts  x.  88, 
Satan  is  in  general  terms  re])resented  as  the  enemv  of  man  ;  in  John 
xii.  81  ;  II.  Cor.  x.  4;  Eph.  vi.  12;  II.  Thess.  ii".  9;  Apoc.  xii.  9; 
XX.  2,  Satan  is  the  enemy  of  (iod  and  of  his  Christ,  the  prince  of  the 
reign  f)f  darkness,  mIucIi  lie  endeavors  to  establish  by  means  of  his 
own  secret  actions,  by  t]\v.  instrumentality  of  his  ministers,  i.e.,  bad 
Christians,  and  of  Antichrist  ;  finally,  in  Ajjoc.  xii.  9,  it  is  expre.ssly 
stated:  "and  that  great  dragon  was  cast  out,  that  old  .ser])ent,  who 
is  called  the  devil  and  Satan,  who  seduceth  tlie  whole  world."  In 
the  light  of  this  fact  we  understand  why  Jesus,  the  second  Adam, 
w  as  tempted  by  the  devil  in  the  beginning  of  his  career  as  our  Re- 
deemer ;  as  our  fall  had  begun  with  the  devil's  victory  over  the  first 
Adam,  so  our  redem])tion  must  begin  x^h  the  devil's  defeat  by  the 
second  Adam. 

Hut  even  the  Old  Testament  identified  the  tempter  in  paradise  with 
Satan.  In  Kcclus.  xxv.  83  we  read:  "From  the  woman  came  the 
beginning  of  sin,  and  through  her  we  all  die.  .  .  ."  We  notice  that 
here;  "the  beginning  of  sin"  antl  "we  all  die"  are  parallel  terms  ; 
consequently,  we  all  die  by  reason  of  sin,  brought  into  the  world  by 
the  tempter  in  ])aradise.  "  But  by  the  envy  of  the  devil  death  cann^ 
into  the  world  "  (Wisd.  ii.  24).  Hence  the  tempter  in  jjaradise  and' 
the  devil  must  be  identified.  The  causal  nexus  between  sin  and 
death,  which  in  Ecclus.  xxv.  88  is  inferred  from  the  parallelism  of 
terms,  is  clearly  stated  by  St.  I'aul  (Hom.  v.  12):  "As  by  one  man 
sin  entered  into  the  world,  and  by  sin  death.   .   .   ." 

For  the  existence  of  C-hrisfian  tradition  in  favor  of  the  identity  of 
the  tempter  with  Satan,  we  must  refer  to  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(Cohort,  ad  gent.  i.  G)  ;  Origen  (de  princip.  iii.  2)  ;  Iren.  (Ha^r.  iv. 
10);  TertuU,  (de  spectac.  18);  Athau.  (ad  episc.  Egypt.,  p.  108); 
Epiphan.  (IIa?r.  i.  40)  ;  Chrysost.  (Ilom.  10  in  tien.  ii.) ;  Theodoret 
(Qua'st.  85);  August,  (de  Gen.  ad  lit.  11);  Damasc.  (de  tide  orthod. 
ii.  10). 

We  may  even  jmint  to  legendary  traditions  existihg  among  the  Per- 
sians and  Indians,  in  which  the  serpent  is  identified  with  or  rei)re- 
sented  as  the  tool  of  the  devil.  The  Vedas  describe  the  war  of 
nature  as  waged  in  the  storm  by  the  god  Indra,  armed  with  light- 
ning and  thunder,  against  a  serpent  Ahi,  who  has  carried  ofT  the 
dawns  or  tlu^  rivers,  (h^sci'ibed  as  goddessi's  or  as  milch  cows,  and 
who  keeps  them  captive  in  the  folds  of  the  clouds.  In  the  Avesta 
this  war  is  a  struggle  for  the  pos.session  of  the  light  of  livareno,  be- 
tween Atar,  described  as  either  the  weapon  or  the  son  of  Ahura,  and 
Azi  Dahilka,  "the  fiendi.sh  snake,"  a  three-headed  dragon,  who 
strives  to  seize  and  ]>Mt  out  the  livareno.  Comi)are  Yt.  xix.  47-52; 
Sacred  Hooks  of  the  Fast,  vol.  iv.  ])]).  Ixii.  f.  In  oni<>r  to  un<lerstand 
the  connection  of  this  struggle  witli  the  history  of  i)riniitive  man,  we 
nnist  keep  in  mind  tliat,  in  the  \'eda.  ^'anui.  the  son  of  Vivasvat,  is 
till-  first  man.  The  corresponding  figure  iu  the  .\vesta  is  ^'ima.  the 
son  of  \'ivani::liat,   tlmugh  the  charai"t«Mistic  of  being  the  first  man 


TEE  MES8IAS  IS  THE  SEED   OF  THE   WOMAN.  189 

eat  of  every  tree  of  paradise  ?  "     And  the  woman  answered  him, 

has  been  transferred  to  (iayu  Maratan.  But  (Jayo  Maratan,  Yima, 
the  bird  Karsiptan  are,  under  different  names,  forms,  and  functions, 
identical  with  Zarathustra,  i  e..  the  god-like  champion  in  the  struggle 
for  light  Now  Yima  ])ossesses  the  hvareno,  i.e.,  the  light  of  sover- 
eignty, the  glory  from  above  which  makes  the  king  an  earthly  god. 
Sovereignty  and  servitude  are  united  with  its  possession  and  its  loss 
respectively  When  Yima  "  began  to  find  delight  in  words  of  i'alse- 
hood  and  untruth,  the  Ulory  (hvareno)  was  seen  to  Hee  away  from 
him  "  (Yt  xix  32)  and  Azi  Dahaka  reigned.  (Sacred  Books  of  the 
East,  iv  pp  Ixiii.,  Ixxv.,  Ixxviii  ,  cf  Delitzsch,  Neuer  Commentar, 
Leipz   1887,  p   99). 

Regarding  the  exception  of  some  authors  that  the  Hel)rews  had  no 
knowledge  of  a  personal  Satan  before  the  time  of  the  Babylonian 
captivity,  we  may  refer  to  the  various  exjilanations  found  in  Corluy 
(Spicileg  Dogm.,  vol  i.  p.  35G)  Supposing  that  the  above  assertion 
be  true,  it  does  not  follow  that  (tod  could  not  afterwards  reveal  the 
true  nature  of  the  tem))ter,  as  he  has  actually  done  The  ins])ired 
writer  of  Gen  iii  1-15  may  have  written  his  story  as  he  had  seen  it 
in  vision,  or  as  the  po]niIar  version  of  tradition  delivered  it  unto  him, 
or  as  the  painter  and  the  sculptor  were  wont  to  re])resent  it,  without 
the  explicit  thought  that  tlie  real  tempter  was  a  hidden  agent.  Be- 
sides, it  is  false  that  the  Hebrews  knew  of  no  personal  Satan  before  the 
Babylonian  captivity  In  Deut  xxxii.  17  we  are  told  "They  sacri- 
ficed to  devils,  and  not  to  (iod,  to  gods  whom  they  knew  not."  In 
Lev.  xvi.  8  we  read  according  to  the  Hebrew  text :  "  and  casting  lots 
upon  them  both,  one  lot  unto  the  Lord,  and  one  lot  unto  Az;iz5l." 
Now,  according  to  the  more  probaljle  interjiretation  of  the  word, 
Aza,z5l  signifies  Satan  (Spencer,  leg.  rit.,  1.  iii.  diss.  viii.  c.  1,  2  ; 
Uesenius,  Lexic  Hebraic;  Koseumliller ;  Winer,  Lexic;  Origen, 
Corluy,  Crelier,  etc  )  ;  not  as  if  one  goat  had  been  sacrificed  to  the 
Lord,  and  the  other  to  Satan,  but  the  sending  forth  of  the  scape-goat 
was  a  symbolical  action,  signifying  that  the  kingdom  of  Satan  was 
renounced,  and  that  the  sins  to  which  he  had  tempted  individuals  or 
the  nation  were  sent  back  to  him.  Later  on,  Satan  again  appears  in 
the  book  of  Job  i.,  ii.  and  in  I.  Par.  xxi.  1  ;  Zacli.  iii.  1  repre- 
sents him  as  an  enemy  of  God  and  founder  of  a  kingdom  of  evil. 
The  suggestion  that  in  the  book  of  Job  a  good  angel  may  be  spoken 
of  (Herder,  Eichhorn,  llgen,  Jahn,  Baumgarten-Crusius)  is  hardly 
worth  noticing  ;  if  the  Hebrews  knew  at  that  time  of  the  existence 
of  good  angels,  why  should  the  existence  of  bad  angels  be  concealed 
from  them  V  In  the  same  manner  we  may  argue  from  (Jen.  xvi.  7; 
xix.  1  ;  Ex  xxxii.  34,  Numlj  xxii.  22,  where  a  knowledge  o-f  the 
existence  of  good  angels  is  either  asserted  or  im])lied.  Finally,  to 
carry  the  war  into  the  enemies'  camp,  the  Hebrews  could  not  liave 
obtained  their  idea  of  Satan  in  the  Babylonian  captivity.  For  accord- 
ing to  Sacred  Scripture  the  evil  one  is  under  the  absolute  ])ower  of 
(lod,  and  can  do  no  harm  to  any  creature  except  by(iod's  permission. 
But  Ahriman,  the  Persian  principle  of  evil,  has  an  absolute  existence, 
lives  in  constant,  open  war  with  Ormuzd,  the  good  principle,  infiicts 
repeatedly  serious  injuries  on  him.  and  will  be  overcoine  only  at  the 
end  of  time. 


100  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

saying:  "Of  the  fruif  of  the  trees  tliat  *;ire  in  paradise  we  do 

C.  The  Mduner  of  tlic  Tctnpltition. — After  determining  tlie  jierson- 
ality  of  the  tein])ter  and  his  outward  ajjix-aranoe,  we  must  tinally 
in()uire  into  the  manner  in  which  the  tcMuptation  was  carried  out. 
Tiu-re  are  a  number  of  authors  who  maintain  that  what  Eve  saw 
when  slie  was  tem])te<l  was  no  real  seri)ent,  but  only  the  ap]>earanco 
of  a  seriKMit.  assumed  for  tlie  time  by  the  devil  (Cyril,  1.  iii.  c. 
.lulian;  Kuguljin.,  in  Cosmojxi'ia).  The  majority  of  commentators 
who  adhere  to  the  literal  meaning  of  (ien.  iii.  1-15  at  all  admit  Iho 
])resence  of  a  real  serix-nt,  of  which  Satan  had  taken  jxjssession  (cf. 
Mariana). 

l?ut  why  did  the  d(n-il  eiiiidoy  such  a  low  and  ignobl(»  instrument 
for  his  ])uri)ose?  The  ai>]iearance  of  a  man  or  the  semblance  of  lire 
or  of  a  cloud  would  have  suited  his  ])uri)oso  much  better.  Crclier 
sees  in  this  fact  a  s])ecial  disposition  of  God's  goodness,  who  wishing 
to  try  man's  obedience,  did  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  man  nat- 
urally desjiise  and  shrink  from  the  temjiter.  Compare  Augustine, 
(len  ad  lit  xi  2i)  ;  St  'J'hom  Summa  Tlieol.  11"  ii""  (]  lO;"),  a.  2. 
ad  4. 

Others,  however,  Ixdieve  that  before  the  fall  nuin  admired  and  loved 
the  serpent  more  than  any  other  animal,  leaner  (Theol.  A.  T.  ]>.  IS!)) 
believes  that  even  the  Sera])him  were  a  kind  r)f  basilisk-headed 
Cherubim,  or  that  they  were  animal  forms  with  serpents'  heads,  such 
as  we  find  in  the  temples  of  ancient  Thebes  (d'esen  Comment,  in  Is  ) 
llitzig  and  others  identify  the  Seraphim  with  the  Egy])tian  Serapis. 
whose  worshi])  was  a  modification  of  the  more  ancient  worship  of 
Knejjh  ;  the  latter  was  re])resented  under  the  form  of  a  serpent,  the 
head  of  whicli  afterwards  formed  the  crest  of  Serapis.  All  this 
seems  to  be  biised  on  the  fact  that  a  sjiecies  of  serpent  was  called 
Sara])h,  whicli  is  the  singidar  numbi'r  of  the  word  Scraiihim.  The 
prinu'val  excellenci;  of  the  serpent  is  much  betttu'  accounted  for  by 
Loch  and  lU'ischl.  As  Lucifer  had  been  one  of  the  mo.st  exalted 
angels  before  his  fall,  so  he  nuule  use,  in  tempting  Eve,  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  exalted  animal;  after  (iod's  curse  the  serpent  became 
the  basest  and  most  dreaded  of  the  animal  world,  as  the  devil  him- 
self had  through  liis  i)ride  become  the  outcast  of  the  sjiirit  world. 
The  above  authors  as<'ril)e  the  sanu'  o])inion  to  St.  Ambrose. 

Another  ipiestion  usually  asked  in  connection  with  this  subject 
concerns  the  speech  attributed  to  the  .serpent.  1.  Julian  th(>  Ajiostate 
asks  sneeringly  in  what  language  the  serpent  had  spoken  ;  Clarke 
infers  from  this  incident  that  the  animal  cannot  have  been  a  serpent, 
but  must  have  been  an  ape,  as  if  an  ai)e  could  speak  without  the 
miraculous  inthieuce of  (iod's  ])ower.  2.  Josephus  (.\nti(|U  ,  1.  i.  c.  1), 
l?asil  (Ilom  de  i)aradiso).  Ejihrem  (I<arce])ha  de  parad.  c  17).  and 
others  hold  that  l)efore  the  fall  all  aninuils  had  the  faculty  of  s]>eech. 
;{  Mariana  follows  the  opinion  of  St  Clement  of  Alexamlria  (Strom, 
i.)  and  St.  .\ugustine  (II  de  doctrin  Christ  )  thai  all  aninuds  have  a 
kind  of  langmige  by  means  of  which  they  communicate  their  feelings 
and  impressions  to  oiw  another,  and  that  our  lirst  jjarents  before  the 
fall  tnuUrstood  this  aninud  language.  4.  Menochius,  (Jordon,  and 
others  nuiintain  that  the  devil  jiroduced  the  words  in  the  ser))enf's 
mouth  by  moving  its  tongue  in  the  re(|uired  manner  ;  but  this  was  no 


TUE  MESSIAS  IS   THE  SEED   OF  THE   WOMAN.  191 

e;it ;  but  of  tlie  fruit  of  the  tree  which  is  in  the  midst  of  paradise 

vital  act  of  the  serpent,  since  it  proceeded  from  no  really  intrinsic 
principle  (Chrysost.,  I'rocop.,  August  1.  xiv  Civ.  11).  5.  Others  con- 
tend that  the  devil  ])roduced  the  vocal  sounds  in  the  ears  of  Eve  in 
such  a  manner  that  Eve  referred  them  to  the  serpent's  mouth.  We 
hardly  need  to  state  C'ajetan's  opinion,  who  reduces  the  serpent's  Ian 
guage  to  an  interior  suggestion,  but  eliminates  also  the  real  serjient. 
Aljarbanel's  view  and  that  of  his  Halibinic  followers,  according  to 
which  the  real  serpent  is  admitted  but  the  devil  is  eliminat(;d,  and 
the  temptation  reduced  to  mere  bad  exam))le,  does  not  dt'sciv(^  any 
more  attention.  The  explanations  given  under  4  and  5  suHicientiy 
account  for  the  serpent's  speech. 

•^  h.  The  Peksonstempted.  — Having  thus  far  explained  what  refers 
to  the  tempter  in  the  story  of  man's  fall,  his  external  aiijjearance, 
his  personality,  and  the  means  he  employed,  we  must  now  proceed 
to  consider  the  person  tempte<l.  Adam's  superior  intelligence  and 
the  wealth  of  his  infused  knowledge  rendered  his  deception  by  the 
devil  very  difficult.  But  the  love  he  had  for  his  divinely  appointed 
(■om])anion  well-nigh  e<iualled  the  greatness  of  his  knowledge.  The 
devil,  having  been  permitted  to  try  Adam's  obedience,  used  even  tliiin 
his  peculiar  tactics  of  assaulting  his  victims  from  their  weake.st  side. 
Unable  to  lead  Adam  into  sin  by  deceiving  his  judgment,  free  from 
l)assion  as  he  was,  he  brought  about  his  fall  by  making  use  of 
Adam's  i)ure  love  for  Eve.  Had  Eve  once  tasted  the  forbidiTen  fruit, 
holding  as  she  did  in  Adam's  heart  a  place  second  to  (iod  alone, 
Adam  must  be  strong  indeed  to  resist  her  powerful  pleading.  Hence 
it  is  that  we  read  in  the  sacred  text :  "  And  he  [the  serpent]  said  to 
the  woman." 

But  why  did  not  her  very  wonder  at  the  seri)ent's  miraculous 
speech  jnit  Eve  on  her  guard  ?  Various  answers  have  been  given 
by  different  commentators  :  1.  The  two  opinions  that  before  the  fall 
all  animals  had  the  power  of  speech,  and  that  before  the  fall  man 
understood  the  animal  language,  which  even  now  exists,  have  been 
stated  in  the  ])receding  paragraph.  Either  would  explain  the  ab- 
sence of  Eve's  surprise,  if  one  should  adopt  it.  2.  Procopius,  Cyril 
(1.  iii.  c.  Jul.),  Abulensis,  Pererius,  Estius,  and  others  maintain 
that  Eve  had  not  yet  learned  the  restriction  of  the  faculty  of  speech 
to  man.  Her  infused  knowledge  was,  according  to  these  authors, 
much  more  limited  than  that  given  to  Adam.  3.  A  Lapide,  St. 
Thomas  (p.  i.  (|.  U4,  a.  4),  Bonaventure,  and  others  believe  that  Eve 
was  aware  of  the  miraculous  character  of  the  seri)ent's  speech,  but 
she  attributed  it  to  a  spirit,  without  reflecting  whether  it  was  a  good 
or  a  bad  spirit.  Being  as  yet  in  the  state  of  her  original  justice,  she 
had  nothing  to  fear  in  either  case.  4.  The  Master  of  Sentences 
(1.  ii.  dist.  xvii.  2)  is  of  opinion  that  Eve  believed  in  Cod's  immediate 
influence  in  the  seri)ent's  speech.  The  second  and  third  opinions 
appear  to  be  the  more  probable  ones,  and  if  we  must  choose  either  of 
the  two,  w'e  prefer  the  second  to  the  third. 

Having  thus  far  investigated  why  Eve  rather  than  Adam  was 
tempted  by  the  serpent,  and  why  she  did  not  shrink  back  in  horror 
at  the  first  approach  of  her  uncanny  interlocutor,  we  must  in  the 
next  place  watch  step  by  step  the   tempter's  progress.     From  the 


rj2  aKNKALOUY  OF  THE  MESSTAS. 

(lod  liatli  coiiiiii.iiidud  us  tlial  we  sliould  not  eat,  and  that  we 
slioiiUl  not  loiicli  it,  lost  purliaps  we  die."     'And  the  serpent  said 

Hebrew  text  it  appears  that  the  sacred  writer  has  not  left  us  the 
whole  dialof^iie  between  Eve  and  the  seri)ent  The  inspired  narrative 
opens  where  the  conversation  begins  to  ri-ach  the  crisis. 

"  The  Hebrew  conjunction  with  which  the  serpent's  question  is 
introduced  is  found  nowhere  else  at  the  beginning  of  a  conversation 
or  a  paragrajdi.  Wo  may  render  it  as  exjiressive  of  doidjtful  sur- 
prise "Is  it  true  that  (iod  hath  commanded  vou  .  .  ?"  Hy  this 
insidious  cpiery,  which  was  ai)t  to  excite,  according  to  the  disi)osition 
of  the  listener,  either  indignation  at  (Jod's  hardness  or  doubt  con- 
cerning the  real  mtaning  of -(ilod's  command,  the  devil  sounded  Eve's 
heart  to  its  innermost  rect^sses. 

■•  The  woman's  answer  in  its  first  part  is  the  best  that  could  he  de- 
sireil ;  but  the  last  ])hrases,  "  that  we  should  not  touch  it"  and  "  lest 
perhaps  we  die,"  have  ju^tly  ])rovoke(l  criticism.  As  C'relier  observes, 
Eve  exagg«'rates  the  i)rece])t  and  minimizes  the  punishment.  Ciod 
had  forbidden  only  tin;  eating  of  the  fruit,  but  Eve  adds  "that  we 
should  not  touch  it."  (iod  had  said  "  In  what  day  soever  thou 
shall  eat  of  it,  thou  shalt  die  the  death  "  ((fen.  ii.  17),  Eve  merely 
answers  :  "  lest  i)erhai)s  we  die."  It  must,  however,  be  stated  that 
while  many  interi)reters  with  St.  Amlirose  (de  parad.  1.  xii.)  and 
Hupeitus  (1.  iii.  c.  T))  ascribe  this  exaggi-ration  to  an  odium  of  Uod's 
command  on  the  part  of  the  woman,  others  (a  Laj).,  Malvend.,  etc.) 
attribute  the  siime  to  Eve's  conscientiousness,  .\gain  the  "  ])erhaps  " 
of  the  last  phrase  is  not  e.\i)licitly  exjjre.ssed  in  the  llel)rew  te.xt, 
though  even  in  it  the  rigor  of  the  threatened  i>unishment  is  consider 
al>ly  modilied.  St.  Bernard  (Serin,  xxii.  n.  6  de  divers.)  has  well 
unch'rstood  this.  "  Ciod  atlirms,"  he  says  ;  "  the  woman  doulUs  ;  the 
tlevil  deiues." 

*  Though  we  cannot  fidly  understand  the  woman's  disposition  of 
heart  from  her  answer,  the  serpent,  no  doubt,  understood  it ;  her 
tone  of  voice  and  external  bearing  determining  for  him  what  the 
dead  letter  leaves  and)iguous  for  us.  'I'he  devil  continues  to  attack 
what  he  had  found  to  be  Evi^s  weakest  ])oint  1.  "  You  shall  not 
die  the  death."'  2.  "(iud  doth  know  that  in  what  day  soever  you 
shall  eat  thereof  your  eyes  shall  be  opened."  '6.  "You  shall  be  as 
gods."  4.  "You  shall  know  good  and  evil."  The  devil  first  em- 
l)hati(ally  denies  that  any  evil  is  connected  with  the  eating  of  the 
forbidden  fruit,  thus  removing  the  fear  of  i)unishment.  Then  ho 
])r()mises  precisely  those  goods  which  the  woman  most  desired,  hav- 
ing them  most  admired  in  (iod  himself:  speculative  knowledge 
("  your  eyes  shall  be  opene<l  "),  and  i)ractical  knowledge  ("knowing 
good  and  evil"),  but  lioth  iiulepemlentiy  of  (iod  ("  you  shall  be  as 
gods").  The  connt-cting  words  "  for  (iod  doth  know  ''  are  explainetl 
by  some  as  a  proof  that  the  command  regarding  the  fruit  was  not 
meant  seriously  or  contained  a  mystery  not  yet  understood  by  our 
first  ])arents  (.August.,  I.  ii.  de  (Jen.  ad  lit.  c.  ;!();  a  Lap),  by  others 
as  an  insinuation  that  (iod  had  given  the  command  through  envy  and 
jealousy  (.Mariana,  Calmet,  Crelier,  etc.).  j-'ither  motive  was  suf 
licient  to  remove  the  secoixl  barrier  that  stood  between  the  forbidden 
fruit  and  Eve,  i.e.,  her  love  lor  (iod  ;  how  the  fear  of  j)uuishment 


THE  MES8IAS  IS  THE  SEED  OF  THE   WOMAN.  193 

to  the  woman:  "  No,  you  shall  not  die  the  death.     For  God  doth 
know  that  in  what  day  soever  you  shall  eat  thereof,  your  eyes 
shall  be  opened,  and  you  shall  be  as  gods,  knowing  good  and 
evil." 
And "  the  woman  saw  that  the  tree  was  good  to  eat,  and  fair 

had  been  overcome  has  been  stated  above.  We  may  notice  in  passing 
the  fanciful  interpretation  which  Abulensis  (c.  xiii.  q.  493)  gives  of 
the  clause  "  your  eyes  shall  be  opened."  Both  Adam  and  Eve  were 
blind  before  the  fall  accordin;^  to  him,  and  only  after  their  sin  they 
began  to  see  that  they  were  naked.  The  phrase  "  as  gods "  is 
rendered  "  as  angels  "  by  several  interpreters  and  Rabbinic  writers, 
while  the  Chaldee  ver.sion  reads  "as  princes  ;"  but  the  context  and 
the  majority  of  commentators  favor  the  rendering  "  as  gods, "  or 
"  like  unto  Ciod." 

'^  Thus  far  all  obstacles  to  the  eating  of  the  forbidden  fruit  had 
been  removeLl,  and  a  most  powerful  incentive  for  ])artaking  of  the 
same  had  been  suggested.  Now  "the  woman  saw  that  the  tree  was 
good  to  eat,  and  fair  to  the  eyes,  and  delightful  to  behold,"  or  as  the 
Hebrew  text  has  the  last  clause,  "a  desirable  [means]  to  become 
wise;"  conseiiuently  even  her  sensuality  is  now  affected.  "And 
she  took  i)f  the  fruit  .  .  .  and  did  eat."  Some  intei'i)reters  believe 
that  the  forbidden  fruit  was  that  of  the  fig  tree  ;  others  speak  of 
dates,  but  the  more  common  opinion  assigns  the  apple-tree  as  that 
on  which  God's  prohibition  rested  (Estius).  This  opinion  may  be 
based  on  Cant.  viii.  5:  "Under  the  apple-tree  I  raised  thee  up; 
there  thy  motlier  was  corruijted,"  and  on  the  fact  that  the  tree  was 
"fair  to  the  eyes."  Though  the  matter  of  the  divine  ])recept  was 
light,  the  precept  itself  was  a  grave  and  weighty  one  by  reason  of 
the  motive  for  which  it  had  been  given.  The  fate  of  the  whole 
human  race  had  been  by  the  will  of  (lod  connected  with  its  ob- 
servance or  violation,  Adam  representing  in  his  obedience  or  dis- 
obedience all  mankind. 

Finally,  a  word  about  the  temptation  of  Adam  must  be  added,  and 
we  shall  have  liroua^ht  our  consideration  of  the  temptation  to  a  close. 
Instead  of  the  phrase  "and  [she]  gave  her  husband"  the  Hebrew 
te.vt  reads:  "and  she  gave  also  her  husband  with  her."  Hence 
soTue  writers  infer  that  Adam  was  present  at  Eve's  conversation  with 
the  serpent  (Fag.,  Pise,  Oleast.) ;  IJut  it  is  more  conmiouly  believed 
that  Adam  was  absent  when  Eve  was  tempted.  The  phrase  "  with 
her"  is  explained  as  indicating  that  Eve  ate  a  second  time  of  the 
forbidden  fruit  when  she  tempted  Adam  (Mariana),  or  that  Adam 
met  Eve  wldle  .she  was  eating  of  the  fruit  (Menochius),  or  finally 
that  .\(him  ate  of  the  fruit  as  Eve  had  done  (Malvenda).  A  Lapide  is 
of  opinion  that  Adam  was  greatly  im])resse(l  by  the  fact  that  Eve 
had  eaten  of  the  fruit  and  had  not  died.  Next,  the  serpent's  prom- 
ises of  divine  knowledge,  god-lil^e  wisdom,  and  independence  of 
(lod  produced  their  impression.  Still,  Adam  was  not  deceived  by  all 
this,  as  Eve  had  been  (see  I.  Tim.  ii.  14).  It  was  Adam's  love  for 
Eve  that  brought  al)out  his  final  resolution.  The  arguments  coming 
fro7n  her  V\\)H  have  an  additional  strength  ;  she  must  not  be  offended 
at  any  cost ;  God's  command  cannot  be  meant  to  be  such  a  grave  one 


104  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 

to  tlio  oyos,  and  dclij^Iitfiil  to  Ix-lioUl  ;  and  slie  took  of  the  fruit 
tlieroof,  and  did  oat,  and  'gave  to  liur  husband,  who  did  eat. 

uftcr  all,  1111(1  (iod's  love  is  of  less  linijoitaiice  than  that  of  Eve. 
Compare  Muriaua,  t'aliiiet,  Malveiula,  a  Lapiilc,  Au^^usliiie  (Clvit.  1. 
xiv.  11). 

2.  The  Twofold  Sin. — A.  Si.\  ok  Fae. — We  imist  now  lirieHy  eiiu- 
iiKM'ate  llic  various  sins  which,  accord inif  to  thi?  o])iiii()iis  of  cniMiiifii- 
tators,  Adam  and  l'",ve  committed  in  eating  of  the  forbidden  fruit. 
St.  Augustine  ((ien.  ad.  lit.  1.  .\i.  c.  80;  de  lil).  arbit.  1.  iii.  c.  ^4; 
retract.  1.  i.  c.  14  ;  de  (.'ivit.  Dei  1.  .viv.  c.  11  et  18)  is  of  opinion  that 
Eve  would  not  liavu  believeil  the  serpent,  had  not  her  mind  been 
imbued  with  selfdove  and  ])resumptioii.  From  this  we  must  not 
infer  what  Uni)ertus  maintains,  that  Eve  had  sinned  even  before  tlie 
temptation  by  yitddin^  to  pride  and  a  desire  of  the  forbidden  fruit. 
This  sin  of  tliouiiht  would  tlieii  have  been  the  occasion  of  tlie  temp- 
tation, '{"he  same  Ku|)eitiis,  ton-ether  with  Hugo  and  the  Master  of 
Sentences,  places  Eve's  lirst  outward  sin  in  the  doubting  expression 
"lest  perhaps  we  die."  St.  Ambrose  tliinks  that  Eve  committed  her 
first  sin  by  adding  the  clause  "  and  that  we  should  not  touch  it"  to 
(lod's  precept,  (.'hrysostom  sees  the  woman's  tir.st  sin  in  lier  conver- 
sation with  tilt!  ser])ent.  liut  none  of  the.se  o])inions  appear  to  Ik; 
jirobable,  since  the  first  sin  was  an  act  of  the  will  rather  than  of  tlie 
intellect.  Besides,  it  seems  to  Ije  commonly  admitted  that  sucli  an 
error  would  not  amount  to  a  mortal  sin  ;  but  venial  sin  was,  accord- 
ing to  St.  'I'hoiuas  (1."  ii."'' (J.  t?9,  a.  3),  not  possible  in  the  state  of 
primitive  innocence. 

Thougli  the  whole  sin  of  Eve  may  be  said  to  be  a  sin  of  disobedi- 
ence, because  disobedience  was  its  ultimate  com])letioii,  still  by  analy- 
sis we  may  learn  the  dilferent  stei>s  which  led  to  the  linal  reliellion. 
1.  The  first  sinful  step  was  pride,  which  manifested  itself  in  a  desire 
of  ])ossessiiig  divine  wisilom  and  knowledge  iiulejiendeiitly  of  (Jod 
(l<>cidus.  X.  14;  Tob.  iv.  14;  St.  Ambrose  4  in  Luc;  St.  Ignat.,  epist. 
ad  Trallianos  ;  St.  Chrysost.  in  I.  Tim.  ii.  14;  St.  August.,  1.  xi.  de 
(Jen.  ad  lit.  c.  5  ;  1.  xvi.  de  civit.  c.  13  ;  St.  Thorn.  II."  ii."»  ip  1(58,  2  , 
a  Lai).,  (-tc.).  2.  The  second  sinful  step  was  indignation  at  (iod's 
command  by  means  of  which  the  sinfully  desired  good  was  kept  from 
man.  8.  Another  step  to  ruin  was  Eve's  curiosity.  4.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  desire  of  the  forbidden  food.  ~).  Then  came  a  formal 
belii'f  of  the  .ser)>('nt's  words  and  promises,  ti.  Lastly,  the  forbidden 
fruit  was  eaten  tlirough  an  act  of  formal  disobedience. 

^  The  (lUfstion  whether  Eve  in  teni])tiiig  Adam  formally  knew  that 
she  had  been  deceived  has  been  variously  answered.  Calmet  after 
St.  Ambrose  (1.  de  parad.  c.  G)  believes  that  Evi;  knew  her  mistake 
before  shi;  aildressed  Adam.  Mut  the  more  common  opinion  inclines 
to  tilt!  opposite  view.  Adam,  not  Eve,  had  been  constituted  the 
moral  head  of  the  human  race,  on  whose  obedience  or  disobedience 
the  gift  of  nature's  integrity  was  to  dejiend.  Conseipiently,  though 
Eve  had  lost  sanctifying  grace,  vet  before  Adam's  fall  she  might  still 
])ossess  the  other  gifts  of  the  state  of  i)aradise  (frt'edom  from  concu- 
piscence, immortality,  infused  knowledge,  etc.).  How  «'lse  could  \\■^' 
explain  that  she  appeared  naked  before  Adum  without  sentiments  of 


THE  MES81AS  IS  THE  SEED   OF  THE   WOMAN.  195 

And '  the  eyes  of  them  both  were  opened  ;  and  when  they  per- 

shame?  Of  her  loss  of  sanctifying  grace  she  was  not  conscious,  so 
that  her  mistake  was  as  yet  unknown  to  her.  Some  authors  speak 
also  of  a  kind  of  enthusiasm  for  the  forbidden  fruit  that  had  taken 
possession  of  Eve,  so  that  she  neglected  the  pangs  of  conscience,  if 
any  should  have  made  themselves  felt. 

B.  Sin  of  Adam. — The  sin  of  Adam  is  represented  by  Pererius  as 
containing  eight  steps:  1,  i)ride  ;  2,  a  too  great  desire  to  please  his 
wife  ;  8,  curiosity  ;  4,  incredulity,  as  if  God  had  not  meant  his  com- 
mand seriously  ;  5,  presumption  as  to  the  levity  of  sin  ;  6,  gluttony  ; 
7,  disobedience  ;  <S,  vain  excuse  of  his  sin.  St.  Augustine  (serm.  19 
de  Sanctis)  says:  "Had  not  Adam  excused  himself,  he  would  not 
have  l)e(^n  exiled  from  ijuradise."  15ut  Pererius,  as  a  Lai)ide  has  it, 
rightly  holds  the  opposite  opinion  to  be  the  true  one,  acccjrding  to 
which  Adam  lost  the  state  of  his  paradisiacal  integrity  by  his  disobe- 
dience. 

The  question  whether  Adam  or  Eve  sinned  more  grievously  is 
answered  by  St.  Thomas  (11."  ii.*"  q.  108,  a.  4)  with  a  distinction  : 
If  the  sin  be  viewed  in  itself,  Eve's  transgression  was  the  more 
grievous  one,  because  she  sinned  first  and  induced  Adam  to  f<illow 
her  example  ;  if  the  ])erson  be  considered,  Adam's  sin  was  more 
grievous,  because  he  had  been  constituted  the  moral  head  of  man- 
kind: he  had  received  his  command  immediately  from  God,  and  his 
knowledge  and  prudence  probably  by  far  surpassed  those  of  Eve. 

"3.  Consequences  of  the  Sin. — Having  thus  far  considered  the  temp- 
tation and  sin  of  our  first  parents,  we  must  next  investigate  the  conse- 
quences of  their  sin.  They  may  be  divided  into  three  classes  :  A. 
such  as  followed  immediately  ;  B.  those  that  manifested  themselves 
at  the  approach  of  God  ;  C.  those  revealed  in  God's  judgment. 

A.  Immediate  Consequences.— The  innuediate  consequences  are 
contained  in  the  verse  :  a.  "and  the  eyes  of  them  both  were  opened  ; 
b.  and  when  they  perceived  themselves  to  be  naked  ;  c.  they  sewed 
together  tigdeaves  and  made  themselves  aprons."  In  general  we 
notice  here  how  clause  b}'  clause  forms  an  ironical  contrast  with  the 
serpent's  promises  :  an  increase  of  knowledge  they  obtained,  but  in- 
stead of  perceiving  themselves  to  be  as  gods,  they  i)erceived  them- 
selves to  be  naked  ;  their  desired  increase  of  wisdom  taught  thena 
how  to  sew  together  tig- leaves  and  make  themselves  aprons.  The 
Toheleth  Joseph  tells  us  in  its  preface  that  the  angel  liaziel  brought 
a  book  full  of  the  greatest  mysteries  to  Adam  after  his  fall,  but  by  the 
advice  of  the  angel  Adai'niid  Adam  sealed  the  book  and  consulted  it 
only  concerning  the  highest  mysteries,  such  as  the  form  of  God's 
chariot  throne,  the  foundations  and  movements  of  the  heavens,  the 
diverse  languages  of  the  universe,  the  good  and  bad  angels,  astron- 
omy, the  times  and  seasons,  the  influence  of  the  stars,  the  manufact- 
ure of  talismans,  and  all  profane  and  sacred  worship.  Josephus  too 
(Antiqu.,  1.  i.  c.  1)  believes  that  through  an  inherent  virtue  of  the 
forbidden  fruit  Adam  learned  several  things  that  had  formerly  been 
unknown  to  him,  e.g.,  his  own  nakedness. 

A  Lapide  gives  the  following  analysis  of  the  peculiar  knowdedge 
gained  by  Adam  and  Eve  after  their  fall  :  1.  They  felt  the  sting  of 
concupiscence.     St.  Augustine  (de  (ien.  xi.)  says  that  their  eyes  were 


196  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  ME8SIA8. 

ccivcd  themselves  to  be  naked,  tlu-y  sewed  togetlier  tig-leaves  and 
made  themselves  aprons. 

And  when "  they  heard  the  voice  of  the  Loi'd  God  walking  in 

opened  to  hist  after  each  other  (^hiriana,  Sa,  Malveiul.,  Mcnocb., 
etc.).  2  Hence  they  became  conscious  of  their  nakedness,  and  were 
tilled  with  siianie  and  confusion  ((iordon,  Malvend.).  3.  The  eyes 
of  their  mind  were  oj)ened,  so  that  they  un(k'rstood  the  good  they 
had  lost  and  the  evil  they  had  brought  on  themselv(\s.  St.  I'hrysos- 
toni  says  lUoni.  Iti,  in  (ien.)  :  "'i'he  eyes,  not  of  their  bodies,  but  of 
their  luind.s  were  opened."  St.  Augustine  too  (de  ("ivit.  Dei,  1.  xiv. 
c.  IT)  believes  that  their  eyes  were  opened,  so  as  to  know  the  good 
they  had  lost  and  the  evil  that  had  befallen  them  (Mariana,  Sa,  Mal- 
vend., Menoch.,  Tirin  ).  4.  They  knew  too  that  the  .serpent's  pn.au- 
ises  liad  l)een  false,  that  (fod's  word  was  true  (Menoch.,  Tirin.). 
How  far  our  first  patents'  knowledge  extended  to  the  jjarticulars  of 
their  misery, — whether  they  knew,  e.g.,  that  they  hail  lost  the  posses- 
sion of  paradise,  the  infused  virtues  of  charity  and  i>rudeuce, — we  can- 
not (h'tenniue  (cf.  a  La}).,  Tirin.). 

This  knowledge!  was  naturally  followed  by  what  is  told  in  the 
words  of  Sacred  Scripture  :  "  they  sewed  together  fig-leaves  and 
made  themselves  ai)rons. "  Iren  (1.  iii.  c.  37)  is  of  opinion  that  Adam 
and  Kve  chose  the  tig-leaves  for  a  covering  of  their  nakedness  iu 
order  to  do  penance  by  patiently  bearing  the  stings  of  its  thorns. 
Mariana  holds  that  the  tig-leaf  was  chosen  because,  according  to  the 
o|)inion  of  many  Hal)l)inic  and  most  (ireek  commentators,  the  fruit  of 
tlu;  tig-tree  had  been  the  forbidden  fruit.  Malvenda  and  Meuochius 
say  that  the  tig-leaf  was  chosen  by  reason  of  its  great  size  ;  some 
Indian  tig-trees  are  said  to  have  leaves  as  large  as  a  shield  (cf.  IMiny, 
1.  xii.  c.  v.;  Solin.  c.  45  ;  Theophrast.  1.  iv.  de  i)lantis).  The  Hebrew 
word  rendered  "  leaf"  has,  at  limes,  the  wider  meaning  "  foliage  " 
(cf.  Jer.  xvii.  8).  C'ahnet  interprets  our  passage  according  to  this 
wider  meaning,  and  thinks  that  the  apron  was  a  kind  of  wattled 
work  made  of  green  branches. 

"  B.  PitKi.i.MiN.MUKS  TO  THE  SiCNTKNCK. — Next  We  miust  pa.ss  in  re- 
view tliose  conse(juences  of  our  first  j>arents'  sin  which  manifested 
themselves  at  Uoil's  approach.  The  nature  of  this  divine  visitation 
was  undoubtedly  merciful.  The  rebellious  angels  had  been  cast  head- 
long into  eternal  ruin,  but  sinful  man  was  to  have  an  opportunity  of 
retraciui^  his  false  step.  The  (juestion  whether  in  thi'  state  of  para 
disiacal  integrity  any  sin  committed  i)y  Adam,  not  in  his  character  of 
mural  head  of  mankind,  or  by  any  dcscenilant  of  .Adam,  would  have 
been  i)ardoned,  has  been  touched  by  (Jordon,  and  is  answered  by  the 
do^nnatic  tlieologians.  (binh)n  believes  llie  <iuestion  is  insoluble 
with  our  jiresent  amount  of  natural  and  revealed  truth.  Returning, 
therefore,  to  our  case  as  staled  iu  (Jenesis,  we  are  first  informed  con- 
cerning the  time  and  circumstances  of  (iod's  merciful  visit,  and  then 
(ioil's  judicial  inipiest  preliminary  to  his  sentence  is  narrated. 

<i.  Time  It  ml  ('irrinu.sti(iir(K: — 'i'he  time  and  circumstances  are  con- 
tained in  verse  8  :  1.  .\t  tlm  afternoon  air  ;  2.  when  t bey  heard  the 
voice  of  the  Lord«iod  walking  in  paradise;  3.  Adam  and  his  wife 
hid  themselves  from  the  face  of  the  l.,ord  tiod,  amidst  the  trees  of 
paradise. 


TUE  MES8IA8  IS  THE  SEED   OF  TUE   WOMAN.  197 

paradise  at  the  afternoon  air,  Adam  and  his  wife  hiil  themselves 

1.  General  Di'terviiiKttion  of  Time. — The  Hebrew  text  reads  :  "at 
(or  in)  the  wind  of  the  day  "  instead  of  the  clause  "  at  the  afternoon 
air."  The  Septuagint  has  the  rendering  "  in  the  evening  ;"  Theodo- 
tion  interprets  "at  the  air  towards  the  cool  of  the  day  ;"  the  Chaldee 
version  reads  "  after  the  rest  of  the  day,"  i.e  ,  as  Calniet  explains  it, 
after  the  rest  taken  in  warm  climates  during  the  hot  mid-day  hours. 
Certain  Habbinic  writers  hold  that  Adam  had  fallen  at  the  tenth 
hour,  i.e.,  about  4  p.m.,  according  to  our  way  of  reckoning.  Though 
some  few  interpreters  believe  that  the  sin  hai)pened  during  the 
course  of  the  morning  (cf.  Mai  vend.),  the  more  common  o))inion 
places  it  in  the  afternt)on.  The  Histor.  Scholastica  assigns  the 
seventh  hour,  i.e  ,  about  1  P.M.;  but  Lucas  Tudensis  (Isidore,  in 
Chronici.s)  says  :  "  Adam  was  formed  at  the  first  hour  of  the  day,  led 
int(^  paradise  at  the  thii'd  hour,  seduced  at  the  sixth  hour,  and  at  the 
ninth  hour  driven  out  of  paradise."  Mariana  sees  here  a  coincidence 
with  the  hours  of  the  crucifixion  and  death  of  Jesus  Christ. 

We  may  mention  in  passing  that  the  opinion  of  commentators  con- 
cerning the  length  of  time  spent  by  our  first  parents  in  paradise  is  by 
no  mean.s  unanimous,  jNlenoch.  (ad  vers.  2'd),  eg.,  believes  that  they 
must  have  spent  at  least  a  few  days  in  their  garden  of  delight ;  (Jor- 
don  (ad  vers.  1)  gives  an  opinion  according  to  which  Eve  was  temi)ted 
on  the  seventh  day  after  her  creation,  and  on  the  thirteenth  day  of 
the  world's  existence ;  according  to  Barcepha  some  commentators 
believe  that  Adam  and  Eve  were  40  days  in  paradise  as  Jesus  was 
40  days  in  the  desert ;  others  hold  that  the  paradisiacal  state  lasted 
30  years,  as  the  hidden  life  of  Jesus  lasted  80  years  ,  others  again 
grant  Adam  only  six  or  nine  hours  of  happiness  before  his  fall ; 
Usserius  is  of  opinion  that  our  first  parents  were  placed  in  paradise 
only  on  the  tenth  day  after  the  creation  of  the  workl  (Nov.  1),  and 
that  they  were  expelled  on  the  same  day.  According  to  Lev.  xvi.  29 
and  xxii.  29,  the  same  day  became  in  the  Jewish  dispensation  a  day 
of  penance  and  expiation  (cf.  Calmet,  in  vers.  23). 

liegarding  the  phrase  "  at  the  air  of  day,"  we  may  reasonably  sup- 
pose that  Moses  understood  by  it  the  time  of  day  at  which  usually  a 
breeze  sprang  up  in  the  country  where  he  was  writing.  Travellers 
and  geographers  (e.g:,  Diodorus  Siculus,  1.  iii.  p.  127;  Chardin, 
Voyage  en  Pertse,  t.  iv.  p.  18)  tell  us  that  in  Arabia  and  Persia  this 
happens  towards  sunset.  Con.sequentl}',  St.  Jerome  and  the  Sep- 
tuagint  riglitly  understand  the  phrase  when  they  refer  it  to  the 
afternoon  air.  A  similar  expression  is  found  in  Cant.  ii.  17  and  \t. 
0,  in  which  passages  commentators  understand  it  almost  unanimously 
as  signifying  evening. 

2  Clvacr  lJ(ti)iniiKition  of  Time. — The  second  and  nearer  deteruuna- 
tion  of  the  time  of  (jod's  merciful  visit  is  contained  in  the  clause 
"  when  they  heard  the  voice  of  the  Lord  (jod  walking  in  paradi.se." 
The  "  voice  "  is  by  S(mie  authors  said  to  have  been  thunder  or  the 
loud  crashing  of  trees  (cf.  Menoch.,  a  Lap.,  Uordon) ;  others  contend 
that  it  was  a  slight  rustling  of  leaves,  such  as  one  makes  by  j)assing 
through  a  forest,  or  a  mere  outward  sign  of  (jod's  presence  (Mai 
vend.);  others  again  explain  it  as  an  articulate  sound  formed  either 
by  an  angel  (Ksti  .s,  a  Lap.,  Cordon)  or  by  Cod  himself,  i.e.,  by  the 


198  OENEALOOY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

from  tlio   fiico  of  the   Lord  (iod,  amidst   the  trees  of  paradise. 
And  the  Lord'"  God  called  Adam,  and  said  to  him:   "  Where  art 

second  person  of  the  Holy  'I'rlnity,  uppcuriii^  in  liunian  foriii  (Marl 
ana,  St.  Ani^ust.,  1.  xi.  c.  'i'-),  de  (ien.  ail  lit.).  Similar  aiiparitions  of 
till'  second  perstn  are  asserted  to  have  taken  place  in  the  times  of 
Al)rahaMi,  .Jacob,  Moses,  etc.  ;  thev  are  rejnesentt'd  as  a  kind  of  trial 
of  human  nature  on  the  part  of  (iod  the  Son,  before  hi-  tinaliy  took 
ii[>on  himself  a  real  human  nature  in  the  mystery  of  the  incarnation 
(cf.  'I'ertuU.  ii.  c.  Marcion.  ;  Element,  i.  I'aMlajro^.  c.  vii.  ;  Iren., 
1.  iv.  c.  xvii.  ;  Hilar.,  xii.  do  Trin.  ;  Kuseb.,  Hist.  Keel.,  init.  ;  Synod. 
Sirmiens.  c.  xii.). 

'').  A(/f/nii'iitiiH/  (Uiritinntiiinii'. — .\  tliird  circumstance  of  (lod's  visit 
of  nnu'cy  to  paradi.sc  is  containt!d  in  the  words  "  Adam  and  Ids  wife 
hid  themsidves  frijni  tlie  face  of  the  Lord  (iod,  amidst  the  trees  of 
l)aradise."  Itosenmiiller  represents  (Jod's  visit  as  representative  of 
the  daily  tribute  of  worship  which  Adam  and  Eve  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  pay  to  (J  od  in  tin;  cool  of  the  evening;:;  after  llieir  sin  this 
relii^ious  exercise  was  omitted.  But  tids  explamition  alone  doi-s  not 
satisfy  the  literal  nu-aninj;;  of  tin;  above  i)assaj;e.  Some  authors  be- 
li(!ve  that  .Vdam  and  Eve  hi. I  themselves  in  the  shrubin-ry  surround- 
ing the  forl)iddeu  tree  ;  supposiajr  the  hitter  to  be  a  li^-tree,  they 
say  such  would  be  the  most  natural  course  of  action,  since  cer- 
tain fig-tretis  are  very  large,  and  propagate  by  bending  down  their 
branches  to  the  earth,  where  they  cause  them  to  take  root  and  tlevelop 
into  separate  trees  (Malvend.  ;  St.  August.,  1.  ii.  de  Gen.  c.  Man- 
ich.  ;  St.  Jerome,  in  Isaiam,  1.  ix.  c.  29).  NN'e  notice  here  one  of  the 
effects  of  Aihim's  sin  ;  he  .seems  to  have  even  forgotten  that  (iod  is 
omniscient  and  omnipr(!S(;nt.  Among  the  reasons  enumerated  by  a 
Lapide  why  .\dam  recognized  the  ap])roach  of  (iod,  the  first  and 
last  seem  most  satisfa(;tory  :  Adam  knew  the  manner  of  (iod's  ap- 
])roach  by  previous  ex|)erieiice,  and,  now  in  particular,  the  voice  of 
his  conscience  manifested  the  nearness  of  the  Judge. 

'" />.  Juflii'iiil  riKjiK'xt. — 'i'he  conversation  between  our  first  ])arents 
and  God,  ])reliminarv  to  the  divini^  sentence,  must  next  be  consiih-red. 
(fod's  (juestion  :  "Adam,  wiiere  art  thou?"  is  by  several  inter|>reteis 
understood  to  be  rather  a  reprimand  or  an  admonition  than  a  r«'al  cpies- 
tion  (St.  And)rose,  de  i'ara.l.  c.  14  ;  'J'ertull.,  cont.  Marcion.  1.  ii.  c. 
2~i  ;  Origen,  i.  de  recta  lide  ;  St.  Basil,  in  I\s.  cxiv.;  St.  August  ,  I.  xi. 
(h)  (ien.  ad  lit.  c.  :U;  cf.  IMiiio,  1.  ii.  Alleg.  Legis  j).  70).  Still  in 
the  (!on'ext  we  lind  a  direc^t  answer  given,  so  that  Adam  must  have 
understood  (Jod's  words  as  a  ([uestion. 

"  1  was  afraid,"  .\dain  answers,  "  because  1  was  naked,  and  I  hid 
myself."  Some  authors  find  a  want  of  sincerity  in  these  words. 
Adam,  they  say,  was  "  ashamed  "  because  he  was  naked,  and  so  hid 
Idmself;  he  was  "  afraid  "  of  the  cau.se  of  his  shame,  his  disobedi- 
(uice.  But  Crelier  thinks  that  at  tliis  period  Adam  really  felt  his 
nakedimss  and  his  shame  more  vividly  than  lie  fcdt  his  guilt ;  he 
was  more  alTecteJ  by  the  conseijuences  of  his  sin  than  he  was  by  the 
sin  itself. 

(Jod's  m^xt  (juestion  impiires  directly  after  the  cause  of  Adam's 
fear  ;  it  even  points  out  the  oidy  reason  that  cmdd   have   brought  it 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  TIlE  SEED   OF  THE  WOMAN.  199 

thou  ?"  And  he  said:  ''  I  have  heard  thy  voice  in  paradise,  and 
I  was  afraid,  because  I  was  naked,  and  I  hid  myself."  And  he 
said  to  him:  "  And  who  hath  told  thee  that  thou  wast  naked, 
but  that  thou  hast  eaten  of  the  tree  whereof  I  commanded  thee 
that  thou  shouldst  not  eat?"  And  Adam  said:  "The  woman 
whom  thou  gavest  me  to  be  my  companion  gave  me  of  the  tree 
and  I  did  eat."  And  the  Lord  said  to  the  woman:  "  Why  hast 
thou  done  this?"  And  she  answered:  "The  seriDcnt  deceived 
me,  and  I  did  eat." 

And  the  Lord  God  said  to  the  serpent:   "  "  Because  thou  hast 

about.  "  Who  bath  told  thee  that  thou  wast  naked,  but  that  thou 
liast  eaten  of  the  tree  whereof  1  commanded  thee  that  thou  sliouldst 
not  eat?"  Estius  remarks  here  that  as  Adam's  sin  of  thought,  liis 
desire  to  be  as  (lod,  had  robbed  liim  of  sanctifying  grace  and  of  the 
infused  virtues,  so  bis  sin  of  action  striiiped  him  of  bis  immunity 
from  concupiscence,  and  taught  him,  by  the  rebellion  of  the  tlesh,  that 
bo  was  nak(;d.  Adam's  answer  is  considered  by  some  interpreters  as 
the  completion  of  the  sin  through  which  be  lost  his  paradisiacal  state 
of  innoct'uce  ;  to  say  the  least,  it  is  an  excuse  of  his  sin  instead  of 
being  an  acknowledgment  of  the  same.  The  woman  whom  shortly 
Ijefore  be  bad  been  afraid  to  disjjlease,  even  at  the  risk  oi  offending 
(i!od,  he  now  accuses  unmercifully  before  the  severe  judge  ;  Ciotl 
himself  be  accuses  for  having  assigned  him  such  a  companion.  His 
language  too  is  expressive  of  the  base  selfishness  which  inspires  bis 
way  of  acting.  Eve  is  merely  the  woman  given  him  by  God  as  a 
companion  ;  of  love  for  Eve,  or  anxiety  for  her  welfare,  there  is  not 
the  slightest  trace. 

God  now  proceeds  as  judge,  inquiring  into  the  case  before  giving 
his  verdict.  "  Why  hast  thou  done  this" — i.e.,  given  to  Adam  of  the 
forbidden  fruit,  so  that  be  did  eat  ?  Instead  of  answering  (iod's  (jues- 
tion  directly,  p]ve  gives  an  excuse  for  her  own  eating  of  the  forbid- 
den fruit.  "The  serpent  deceived  me,  and  I  did  eat."  Crelier  well 
remarks  here  that  Eve  did  not  say,  "The  serpent  seduced  me,"  but 
she  used  the  expression  "  deceived  me,"  as  implying  less  culpability 
on  her  part. 

"C.  (ion's  Sentence. — In  the  last  place  the  consequences  of  our 
first  parents' sin,  as  manifested  in  God's  sentence,  must  be  investigated. 

a.  Sentence  agidnst  the  Serpent. — Without  inciuiring  further  into 
the  serpent's  guilt,  the  Lord  at  ouce  begins  bis  judicial  sentence 

\.  Subject  of  this  Sentence. — The  j)iinisbment  is  held  by  some 
Fathers  (cf.  St.  August.,  I.  xi.  de  (ren.  ad  lit.  c.  36,  et  de  (Jen. 
cont.  Munich.  1.  ii.  c.  26  ;  St.  Gregor.  Great,  Bed.)  to  have  fallen  on 
the  devil  alone  ;  the  serpent  was  not  punished,  because  be  bad  been 
a  mere  instrument  of  the  devil  Other  commentators  maintain  that 
the  serpent  alone  was  punished,  because  the  literal  meaning  of  the 
])assage  regards  him  alone,  and  also  because  the  devil  is  incapable  of 
either  merit  or  demerit. 

Not  to  enter  into  this  latter  question  discussed  by  dogmatic  theolo- 
gians, we  can  easily  understand  why  the  serpent  alone  is  spoken  of 


200  GENRALOay  OF  THE  MESSTA8. 

done  tliis  thiiiii,  thou  art  cursed  among  all  cattle  and  beasts  of 
the  earth  ;  ui)on  tliy  breast  shalt  thou  go,  and  earth  shall  thou 

in  (iod's  si'iitencc^  ,  lie  alone  bad  externally  apiieared  to  Vj\e,  and 
whether  CJod  had  revealed  to  Adam  and  Eve  the  true  nature  of  the 
teini)Ier  must  always  remain  doubtful.  Consequently,  it  seems  most 
probable  that  Uods  sentence  fell  on  tlie  ser])ent  as  he  had  acted  in 
t('iii))ting  Eve.  there  the  devil  had  been  the  i)rinuiry  agent,  the  ser- 
pent the  secondary,  hence  the  punishment  fell  primarily  on  the  devil, 
secondarily  on  the  serpent  (cf  St.  C'hrysost.,  Imm.  17,  in  (icn.,  'I'heo- 
dor.,  interrog  34  in  (jen.).  Those  who  maintain  that  the  serjient 
could  not  be  ])unished,  not  being  capable  of  committing  a  culjjable 
action,  must  consider  that  all  aninuils  have  been  made  for  the  good 
of  man.  Consequently,  Ciod  may  use  them  as  instruments  by  which 
to  show  his  detestation  of  sin.  In.'-tances  of  this  we  have  in  Ex. 
xxi.  21)  ;  Lev.  xx.  15  ;  Deut.  vii    25,  xiii.  15,  Jos.  vii.  25. 

■2.   Pinnnhriioit  co)itai/ird   in    the   Sciitenre  — Passing  next   to   tlie 
])unishnient  intlicted  on  the  serpent,  we  may  consider   first  that  in 
ilicted  on  the  serjient  inde]u'ndentiy  of  man,  then  that  inllictcd  on  the 
scrpt'ut  in  his  relation  to  man. 

(I.  Absolute  PitnisltWDit. — 'J'he  absolute  jxiialty  is  indicated  in  the 
words,  "thou  art  cursed  among  ail  cattle  and  beasts  of  the  earth  . 
up(m  thy  )>reast  shalt  thou  go,  and  earth  shalt  thou  cat  all  the  days 
of  thy  life."  Sa  renders  the  lirst  clause  "cursed  above  all  cattle 
and  beasts  of  the  earth,"  others  ex])laiii  it  "cursed  l)y  all  cattle  and 
beasts  of  the  earth."  But  the  tiue  meaning  is  that  the  seri)ent  is 
taken  from  among  all  animals  which  are  not  cursed,  and  is  cursed  by 
(lod  himself.  The  great  abhorrence  in  which  the  serpent  is  held  by 
all  nations  is  a  consecjuence  of  this  curse,  thougli  this  is  expressed 
more  clearly  in  a  later  clause.  The  phrase  "  u])on  thy  bieast  shalt 
thou  go"  has  induced  Josephus,  Sts.  Ephrem  and  C'hrysostom,  Ileng 
stenberg,  Delitzsch,  Keil,  etc.,  to  su])i;o^e  that  the  serpent  has  suf- 
fered an  organic  change  by  reason  of  this  divine  curse  icf.  lieinke,  Bei 
trJige,  t.  ii.  jip.  ;:fHr)-414).  15ut  serjieiits  found  in  the  tertiary  strata 
show  the  same  organization  that  is  found  in  the  serjients  of  to-day. 
Hence,  l.angeaiid  others  have  had  rt'course  to  a  real,  physical  degrada 
tion  of  the  serjient  by  leason  of  Ood's  curse;  the  general  organism  re- 
nuiining,  however,  unchanged.  But  such  a  sujjposition  is  not  needed 
to  save  the  truth  of  (iod's  word.  The  locomotion  and  food  of  the 
serpent  were  most  ])!()lial)ly  the  same  before  the  curse  that  they  are 
now.  But  what  formerly  liad  been  the  mere  result  of  nature  becauu- 
ihroiif^h  the  curse  a  kind  of  punisliment,  in  so  far  as  it  was  changed 
into  a  lasting  symljol  of  the  effects  of  sin. 

As  to  the  devil,  (iordon  and  others  are  of  o))inion  that  no  new 
j)unishmeiit  was  given  him  through  (lod's  curse,  l)ut  that  his  f<nnier 
pnnishnient  implied  only  a  new  relation  to  flu^  t«'m]>lation  of  our 
first  ]iarents.  St.  .\ugustine  .says  that  the  devil  goes  on  his  breast 
and  belly  by  tempting  man  to  pride  and  luxury,  re))resented  res|>ect- 
ively  by"  bieast  and  belly.  St.  (iregoiy  (1.  x\i.  .Moral,  c.  2)  explains 
the  same  expressions  as  denoting  the  devil's  temptation  to  desires 
and  acts  of  impurity,  which  are  symbolized  by  the  breast  and  iielly. 
The  plirase  "  eartli  shall  thou  eat'  denotes  according  to  many  writers 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SEED   OF  THE   WOMAN.  ^01 

eat  all  the  dnj's  of  thy  life.     I  will  put  '^  enmities  between  thee 

that  the  devil's  usual  prey  will  consist  of  the  very  outcasts  of  man- 
kind (cf.  August.,  1.  ii.  de  (ien.  c.  Manich.,  c.  17;  Bed.,  Kupert., 
Hugo,  Cajetau).  The  permanent  character  of  the  punishment  is  in- 
dicated by  the  clause  "  all  the  days  of  thy  life." 

^'^  b.  Reldtioe  Piiiiishment. — The  second  part  of  the  serpent's  pun- 
ishment consists  in  his  changed  relation  to  man. 

a.  Enmity  between  th.e  Woman,  and  the  Serpent. — He  had  contracted, 
or  feigned  at  least,  a  friendship  with  Eve;  Uod  declares  that  he  will 
put  enmities  between  the  serpent  and  the  woman.  (Jod  does  not  name 
Adam  as  having  enmities  with  the  serpent,  becau.se  Adam  had  not 
directly  been  temjjted  by  the  serpent;  God  wished  also  to  ol)literate 
any  odium  the  woman  might  have  incurred  in  the  sight  of  Adam.  The 
devil  was  affected  by  this  i)unishment  too,  because  it  signified  the  be- 
ginning of  a  successful  struggle  of  man  against  him.  It  was,  of  course, 
owing  to  (lod's  sitecial  providence  that  the  serpent  was  present  when 
(jtod  pronounced  tlie  verdict.  The  word  "woman"  has  the  definite 
article  in  the  Hebrew  text,  to  signify  that  the  same  woman  is  meant 
who  had  been  spoken  of  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  chaj)ter. 
The  word  serpent,  in  the  introduction  to  God's  sentence,  has  the  defi- 
nite article  for  the  same  reason.  The  nature  of  the  enmity  is  known 
from  the  nature  of  the  preceding  friendship;  hence  it  will  give  man 
the  power  to  avoid  sin. 

Though  "  the  woman  "  refers,  in  its  literal  sense,  to  Eve,  it  denotes 
the  Blessed  Virgin  at  least  typically.  For  not  to  mention  the  fact 
that  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  are  unanimous  in  c(jnsidering  Eve  as 
a  type  of  Mar}',  there  is  a  special  reason  for  regarding  her  as  such  in 
the  present  passage.  Catholic  doctrine  understands  the  passage  as 
referring  to  our  Blessed  Lady;  since  we  have  denied  the  existence  of 
such  a  literal  reference,  we  are  bound  to  uphold,  at  least,  a  typical 
one.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  know  that  many  authorities  understand 
the  prophecy  in  its  literal  meaning  of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  among 
these  are:  Iren.  (ILer.  iii.  28),  Epiplianius  (Ilaer.  iii.  78;  xviii.  19), 
Proclus  (Orat.  in  Nat.  Dni.  19),  Ps.  Jerome  (Ep.  de  viro  perfecto  6), 
Fulbertus  (serm.  iv.  in  Nativ.  B.V.),  Bernard  (Horn.  2  super  Mis- 
sus 4),  Isidore  of  Pelus  (Ep.  i.  426),  Smits,  Passaglia,  Patrizi,  Bade, 
etc. 

/i.  Enmity  between  the  Woman's  and  the  Serpent's  Seed. — The  fol- 
lowing i)hrase,  between  "thy  seed  and  her  seed,"  is  in  itself  very 
clear.  8eed  signifies,  by  synecdoche,  the  oft'spx-ing  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals. Thus  employed,  it  generally  applies  to  the  whole  collection; 
but  sometimes  it  designates  an  individual  (cf.  Gen.  iv.  2.r,  xv,  8; 
xxi.  l;i;  I.  Kings  i.  11;  II.  Kings  vii.  12;  I.  Par.  xvii.  11).  Patrizi 
is  of  opinion  that  in  the  present  clause  the  seed  of  the  woman  applies 
to  an  individual,  on  account  of  the  singular  number  of  the  following 
p(U'sonal  i)ronoun — rendered  "  she  "  in  our  versions,  but  which,  as  it 
will  be  seen,  refers  to  the  seed — and  of  the  pronominal  suffix.  For, 
says  the  learned  author,  "seed"  in  its  collective  sense  is  always  re- 
ferred to  by  a  ])lural  pronoun  and  suHix.  Corluy  admits  that  this 
happens  in  eleven  i)assages  (Gen.  xv.  13;  xvii.  !S,  9;  Kx.  xxx.  21; 
Lev.  xxi.  17;  IV.  Kings  xvii.  20;  II.  Esdr.  ix.  2  ;  Jer  xxiii.  fS ;  xxx  10; 
xxxiii.  20;  xlvi.  27;  Ezech.  xx.  5;  cf.  Spicil.  vol.  i.  p.  349),  but  de- 


2<)2  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

and  the  woman,  and  (liy  .scrd  and  lior  seed:  she  shall  "crush  thy 
head,  and  thou  slialt  lie  in  wait  for  her  heel." 


nics  that  it  is  always  ol)servecl  ((ien.  xxii.  17  ;  xxiv.  60).  Hence  it 
must  Ik-  (ieterniinecl  frnin  the  context  whether  in  the  present  passage 
seed  is  taken  in  its  collective  sens(^  or  )ip])iies  to  an  individual.  'J'his, 
ho\vc\  cr,  may  lie  said  in  general,  that  most  probably  the  word  must 
l)f  tak<'ii  in  tlie  same  sense  in  both   instances. 

Another  ditiicuity  aris<'S  from  the  I'ac't  that  seed  in  the  signification 
of  (ifTsi>ring  may  apply  to  either  the  physical  j»rogeny  in  its  strict 
sensts  or  to  a  moral  dejiendency  on  another,  a  simihirity  of  state  or 
character,  a  likeness  ot  manners  and  principles  (cf.  Is.  i.4;  Ivii.  4; 
Ps.  xxxvi.  (xxxvii.)  2.S  ;  I'rov.  xi.  2\;  Matt.  iii.  7;  xii.  34;  Luke  iii.  7; 
•John  viii.  44;  Hom.  iv.  13. 

1.  If  it  be  aslv(>(l  what  is  meant  by  the  seed  of  the  serpent,  there 
can  be  notioubl  liiat  wo  must  understand  the  word  in  its  jihysical  and 
collective  sense;  as  long  as  the  (piestion  is  restricted  to  the  serjient 
projier.  there  is  to  be  a  jierpetuai  enmity  and  warfare  between  the 
serpent  kind  and  mankind. 

2.  Hut  when  the  seed,  not  of  the  serjient  jivoper,  but  of  its  agent, 
the  devil,  is  in  question,  we  may  understand  it  to  signify  .  a.  all  evil 
spirits  (Matt.  xxv.  41;  Apoc.  xii.  7, it);  b.  all  ba<i  nu'ii  (.Matt,  xxiii.  ;{;{; 
John  viii.  44);  c.  both  evil  spirits  and  bad  men.  W  ith  Corluy  we 
believe  that  the  serpent's,  i.e.,  the  devil's,  seed  in  our  passage  most 
])robai)ly  applies  to  bad  men  alone.  They  alont'  are  called  "■  l)rood 
of  vi])ei"s"  (Matt.  iii.  7);  "children  of  the  devil  "  (Acts  xiii.  10),  while 
the  evil  spirits  are  couunonly  called  the  devil's  angels  (Matt  xxv. 
41),  and  the  rulers  of  the  world  of  this  darkness  (V.\)\\  vi  12). 
If  it  be  objected  that  evil  spirits  as  well  as  bad  nuMi  live  in  enmity 
with  the  seed  of  the  woman,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  i*il 
s])irits  are  not  the  (h'vil's  seed  in  such  a  strict  .sense  as  bad  men  are. 
TlK-y  are  rather  his  e(|uals  than  his  olTsjiring.  It  is  therefore  more 
in  conformity  with  the  personal  opi)osition  of  enmity  placed  by  (Jod 
JH'tween  the  wonum  and  the  serpent,  to  restrict  the  serpent's  seed  to 
the  collection  of  bad  nu-n. 

In  the  next  ])lace  we  must  determine  what  is  meant  by  the  seed  of 
the  woman.  Two  facts  have  already  been  noticed  as  affecting  this 
(piestion  :  1.  That  the  seed  of  the  wonum  and  the  seed  of  the  serpent 
ar<^  oi)l)osed  to  one  another  in  the  pa.ssage  under  di.scussion,  and 
must  therefore  be  taken  in  the  same  sense,  as  far  as  the  context  will 
allow  it  ;  2.  that  bad  men  juoperly  constituti^  the  .serpent's  seed  in 
so  far  as  the  serjient  rejiresents  the  devil,  ("onseipiently,  we  must 
take  the  seed  of  the  wonum  collectivcdy,  excluding,  however,  all  hitd 
www.  Such  a  limited  collective  nu-aning  of  seed  is  by  no  means  un 
known  in  the  language  of  Sacred  Scripture;  cf.  (Jen.  xxi.  12  and 
IJom.  ix.  7  :  in  both  passages  the  collective  sense  of  the  seed  has  been 
limite<l. 

IJeasons  for  this  explanation  of  seed  :  1.  Tradition  favors  this  ex 
])lanation  of  seed  :  .Irisephus  (Anticpi.  i.  ll,  St.  Kphrem  (lib.  Attende 
libi  II),  St  Andirosc^  (<ie  fuga  s;eculi,  42),  St.  Ciirysostom  (hom.  17 
in  (Jen.  7),  St.  Jerome  ((pia'st.  in  (ien.  iii    IT)) ;  cf.  a  iiapiile,  Marius, 


TEE  MES8IA8  IS  THE  SEED   OF  TUE   WOMAN.  203 

To  the  '^  woman  also  he  said:    "  I  will  multiply  thy  sorrows,  and 

Bonfrerius,   Calmet,   Keinke,   Himpel   (Quartalsclirift,    1859),   Ileng- 
stenberg,  etc. 

2.  The  context  requires  that  the  seed  of  the  woman  be  taken  col- 
lectively. Two  points  must  here  be  noticed  :  a.  A  successful  enmity 
with  the  devil  is  carried  on  by  all  who  are  in  the  grace  of  Christ 
(John  vi.  40-47  ;  x.  7-9  ;  xiv.  6  ;  Acts  iv.  12) ;  but  all  who  are  united 
to  Christ  by  his  grace  form  with  Christ  one  mystic  body  (I.  Cor.  xii. 
12-14,  27  ;  Eph.  iv.  i;]  ;  i.  22  ;  Col.  i.  18;  Gal",  iii.  24-28).  In  this 
sense  therefore  Christ  alone,  i.e.,  his  mystical  body 'alone,  is  the  seed 
of  the  woman,  b.  The  seed  of  the  woman  may  be  taken  collectively 
even  in  an  unlimited  sense,  so  as  to  comprise  the  whole  human  race. 
For  through  Jesus  Christ  ail  men  have  obtained  the  power  of  suc- 
cessfully combating  the  serpent,  though  not  all  men  make  use  of  it. 

3.  The  end  of  the  prophecy  requires  that  the  seed  of  the  woman 
be  understood  in  its  collective  sense.  For  the  prediction  was  to  con- 
vey consolation  to  Adam  and  Eve.  And  how  could  they  have  been 
consoled  by  the  mere  assurance  that  some  individual  would  at  some 
future  time  overcome  the  devil  V  But  great  must  have  been  their 
consolation  when  they  understood  that  all  could  successfully  strive 
against  him,  if  they  were  only  willing  to  do  so.  An  implicit  faith  in 
the  future  Redeemer  was  sufficient  in  the  case  of  those  living  in  the 
Old  Testament  to  secure  the  grace  of  Chri.st  requisite  for  a  success- 
ful struggle. 

4.  St.  Paul  (Rom.  xvi.  20)  appears  to  apply  the  seed  of  the  woman 
to  all  the  just  taken  collectively.     Whenever  the  apostle  seems  to 

•  understand  the  exi)ression  of  an  individual  ((ial.  iii.  16),  he  argues 
not  from  the  literal  but  from  the  mystical  meaning  of  the  word,  sup- 
posing that  the  whole  collection  of  the  just  is  through  C-hrist,  the 
spiritual  seed  of  Abraham.  This  signification  of  the  term  has  been 
explained  in  2  a. 

f).  In  point  of  fact,  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  warrants  us  in 
understanding  "  seed  "  in  its  collective  meaning.  Jesus  Christ  has 
not  alone  overcome  the  devil,  but  all  the  just  by  the  grace  of  Christ 
have  gained  the  same  victory  (cf.  Luke  x.  9;  I.  Pet.  v.  9;  I. 
John  ii.  13  ;  Col.  ii.  15.)  If  such  a  victory  is  said  to  surpass  the 
power  of  creatures  (I.  John  iii.  8  ;  Heb.  ii.  14,  15),  we  understand  that 
this  is  meant  of  creatures  not  aided  by  the  grace  of  Jesus  Christ. 
That  (lod  reijuires  of  every  one  a  successful  struggle  against  evil  is 
so  often  insisted  on  that  we  need  not  multiply  passages  in  its  proof. 
Should  we  be  told  that  no  new  enmity  was  put  between  the  collective 
seed  of  the  woman  and  the  sei'pent's  seed,  we  point  to  the  fact  that 
by  virtue  of  the  words  "  I  will  put  enmities  "  the  woman's  seed  was 
raised  from  the  rank  of  the  serpent's  subject  to  that  of  its  successful 
foe.  Tliis  is  sufficiently  important  to  be  considered  as  the  fulfilment 
of  the  prediction.  If  the  word  "seed"  is  often  used  to  denote  an 
individual,  or  even  the  Messias  ((Jen.  xxii.  18  ;  xxvi.  4  ;  xxviii.  14  ; 
Is.  iv.  2  ;  Zach.  iii.  8  ;  vi.  12,  etc.),  it  does  not  follow  that  it  always 
has  that  meaning,  esiiecially  in  passages  in  which  we  have  good  rea- 
son for  assuming  the  colle(-tiye  sense  of  the  word.  The  i)atristic  tes- 
timony in  favor  of  the  individual  meaning  of  seed  (Iren.  \hvv.  iv.  10  ; 


204  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MES8IAS. 

thy  conceptions;  in  sonow  sluilt  Ihou  bring  forth  children,  unci 

CVi)riuii,  advcrs  Judioos.  ii.  9  ;  Leo  the  (ireat,  Serin.  21)  is  fully  out- 
weighed by  the  i)atribtic  testiiuony  i^iven  above.  The  authority  of 
C()iniiieutat<ir.s  named  in  the  same  place  outweighs  that  of  Suiits, 
I'atrizi,  Bade,  etc. 

'•*  (Jniti/niif/  of  the  Serpent's  Head. — Now  we  come  to  a  more  vexed 
question.  Must  we  read  "  she,"  or  "  he,"  or  "  it  "  shall  crush  thy 
head  V  In  other  words,  is  the  wonuin  the  subject  of  the  clause,  or  is 
the  seed  its  subject?  The  latter  interpretation  is  j)referable,  for  the 
following  reasons  :  1.  Excepting  two  codices,  the  Hebrew  text  gives 
everywhere  the  masculine  form  of  the  pronoun.  Jewish  tradition, 
as  manifested  in  the  pointiug  of  the  word,  is  unanimous  in  favor  of 
thenuisculine  form.  Maimonides  alone  favors  the  feminine  2.  The 
context  rccjuires  the  masculine  form  of  the  pronoun  ,  tlie  noun  which 
innnediately  piectMles  and  to  which  the  ])ronoun  refers  is  masculine 
(seed),  and  in  the  following  clause  two  pronominal  suffixes  which 
refer  to  the  })ronoun  now  in  (piestion  are  l)oth  nuisculine.  '6.  All 
the  old  versions  favor  the  masculine  form  of  the  pronoun.  From  all 
the  codices  of  the  Septuagint,  as  well  as  from  the  language  of  all 
Cireek  Fathers  who  (pu)te  <ien.  iii.  1"),  it  is  evident  that  the  Se])tuagint 
had  the  masculine  ]>i'oni)un.  Theophilus  alone  em])loys  the  neuter 
form  "  it ;  '  but  jjrobably  he  emi>l()yed  this  gender  merely  to  correct 
a  grainuKitical  error  without  (easing  for  that  reason  to  indicate  a 
masculine  agent  (cf.  (ial.  iii.  10  ;  .lohn  i.  10-12  ;  Matt,  xxviii.  19  ; 
Luke  viii.  5).  St.  ('y]'rian  (c.  Jud.  ii.  9)  and  St.  Jerome  (qujvst.  heb. 
in  (u!n.)  testify  that  the  Itala  read  "  he  shall  crush  ;  "  Leo  the  (Jreat, 
Peter  Chrysologus,  and  the  translator  of  Irena.'us  bear  witness  to  the 
same  fact.  If  Hulinus'  translation  of  Joseplius  (Antiqu.  i.  3)  reads 
"she"  in  our  i)assage,  it  must  be  remendjercd  that  Rufinus  has  often 
substituted  his  own  for  his  author's  opinions.  H(>garding  the  Latin 
translation  of  St.  Clirysostom  the  same  must  be  said  ;  for  the  better 
(ireek  codices  have  the  nuisculine  form  "he."  The  Syriac  and 
Sanuiritau  versions  too  read  "he  shall  crush."  Onkelos  favors  the 
nnisculine  "  he  ;  "  Pseudo-Jonathan  exi)lains  the  word  in  a  collective 
nu^aning. 

The  (pie.stion  concerning  the  relation  of  the  ])ronoun  "  he  "  is  more 
easily  settli'd.  We  refer  it  to  the  word  "  seed,"  and  not  to  "  woman." 
Ueasons  ;  1.  Seed  is  the  noun  nearest  to  the  ])ronoun  "  he  "  in  the 
Hebrew  text  ;  but  as  a  general  rule  i)ronouns  refer  back  to  the  near- 
est noun  agreeing  with  them  in  gemler.  2.  The  jn-onoun  in  (piestion 
agrees  in  gender  with  the  iKuin  "  seed,"  not  with  "  wonuin  ; "  the 
sanu!  holds  for  the  pronominal  sullixes  which  in  the  same  ])assage 
refer  back  to  the  pronoun  itself,  and  through  it  to  seed.  3.  All  the 
ancient  versi(nis,  exct^jting  tlu^  N'ulgate,  refer  the  pronoun  to  seed  ; 
the  text  of  the  Vulgate  is  the  sole  reason  why  some  writers  have  re- 
ferred it  to  wonuin.  ('<u-luy  tells  us  that  several  Fathers  and  com- 
mentators openly  assert  1  he  reference  of  the  i>ronoun  to  the  woman 
through  the  medium  of  the  seed,  i  e.,  that  the  woman  shall  crush  the 
serpent's  head  in  .so  far  as  her  seed  shall  do  so.  Hegarding  the  i)as- 
sages  (Jen.  ii.  2:5;  h'ccl.  xii.  A  ;  Est.  i.  20,  in  which  feminine  nouns 
or  pronouns  are  joined  to  masculine  verbs,  it  inu.st  be  observed  that 


THE  ME88IA8  IS  THE  SEED   OF  THE   WOMAN.  205 

thou  shalt   be  under   thy  husband's  power,   and  he  shall  have 
dominion  over  thee." 


the  context  explains  this  abnormal  agreement ;  but  the  context  of 
(ien.  iii.  b5  re<iiiires  rather  the  reference  of  the  masculine  pronoun 
to  the  masculine  noun  "seed." 

The  two  verbs  "  crush  "  and  "  lie  in  wait  for  "  read  in  the  Hebrew 
text  alike,  so  that  literally  we  should  render  the  verb  either  by 
"crush"  in  both  cases,  or  Ijy  "lie  in  wait  for."  The  meaning  "to 
crush  "  well  suits  the  other  passage  of  the  Old  Testament,  hi  which 
the  same  verb  certainly  occurs  (Jol)  ix.  17).  Regarding  another  oc- 
currence, see  Ps.  cxxxviii.  (cxxxix.)  11 — (Ilgst.,  Kodiger,  Delitzsch, 
Fiirst,  Kalisch,  Keil,  Kohler,  tSchultz).  TheTargumin  (Syr.,  Samar., 
Saad,  Pers.,  Ar.  Erpen..  (ir.  Ven.,  Lth.)  use  the  word  in  the  same 
signification  ;  but  the  Septuagint  and  Onkelos  (Kno.,  Baur,  Ewald, 
Diilm.)  jn-efer  the  meaning  "  to  lie  in  wait  for."  St.  Jerome  employs 
both  tliese  meanings,  rendering  the  verb  according  to  the  context,  by 
"crushing"  in  the  first  place,  and  by  "lying  in  wait  for"  in  the 
second.  The  double  accusative  following  the  verb  in  Hebrew  points 
to  a  meaning  "to  attack,"  "to  crush;"  the  construction  does  not 
occur  with  verbs  meaning  "  to  lie  in  wait  for."  Corluy  is  of  opinion 
that  a  more  general  term,  e  g.,  "  to  attack,"  would  be  more  in  keep 
ing  with  the  precise  meaning  of  the  verb— a  meaning  necessarily 
qualified  by  the  context  (cf.  Delitzsch,  Neuer  Commentar,  1887,  p. 
106). 

The  .serpent's  head  in  our  case  is  the  reign  of  the  devil  (John  xii.  31; 
Col.  ii.  1.^  ;  1.  John  iii.  8),  or  the  reign  of  sin  (Uom.  v.  21;  vi.  lG-18), 
the  end  of  which  is  death  (Rom.  vi.  21-23).  The  crushing  of  the  ser- 
pent's head  implies  a  mortal  wound  (cf.  Johnxiv.  30;  xii.  31;  xvi.  11), 
such  as  tlie  reign  of  evil  received  at  the  foot  of  the  cross.  The  heel 
of  the  seed  is  either  the  humanity  of  Jesus  Christ  or  his  my.stical 
body,  the  Church.  Against  Ijoth  the  serpent  has  waged  war,  as  both 
the  gospels  and  history  testify  (cf.  Apoc.  xii  13  ;  Matt.  xiii.  25  ;  Job  i. 
6,  9  ;  Zach.  iii.  1  ;  Apoc.  xii.  10;  Luke  xxii.  31  ;  Eph.  ii.  2  ;  vi.  11  ; 
I.  Pet.  v.  8  ;  Matt.  xvi.  18  ;  I.  Cor.  x.  13).  But  the  wounds  inflicted 
by  the  serpent  on  the  seed  are  slight  and  curable. 

'■*  b.  Sentence  aytdnst  Eoe. — It  may  be  freely  granted  tliat  Adam 
and  Eve  did  not  fully  understand  the  meaning  of  the  i)rophecy  now 
discus.sed  as  we  understand  it  in  the  light  of  its  fuliilment.  They 
did  not  know  when,  by  whom,  and  how  they  were  to  be  saved  ;  but 
still  the  general  assurance  was  given  tliem  that  both  they  themselves 
and  the  seed  of  the  woman  should  be  enabled  to  carry  on  a  succe.ssful 
enmity  against  the  serjient,  to  overccnne  sin  ami  temptation,  to  culti- 
vate virtue,  and  finally  to  be  received  again  into  (lod's  favor.  But 
whatever  may  have  beeu  the  insight  into  (Jod's  merciful  promises 
granted  to  our  first  paicnts,  it  surely  sufficed  to  strengthen  them 
under  the  weiglit  of  their  own  puiushment. 

Eve's  sentence  is  in  strict  accord  with  her  ]iart  in  Adam's  tempta- 
tion and  fall.  Adam's  conjugal  love  for  his  wife  had  lK>en  the;  lever 
which  moved  his  will  from  the  lovt^  of  (iod  ;  Eve's  puni.shmcnt  con- 
sists precisely  in  her  obligation  of  f)earing  the  painful  c<mse<iuences 


206  OENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

And  to"'  Adam  lie  sjiid:  "  Because  thou  hast  hearkened  to  the 
voice  of  thy  wife,  and  hast  eaten  of  tiie  tree  whereof  I  coinuianded 
thee  that  thou  shouhlst  not  eat,  cursed  is  the  earth  in  thy  work, 
with  hibor  and  toil  sluUt  thou  eat  thereof  all  the  days  of  thy  life. 
Thorns  and  thistles  shall  it  bring  forth  to  thee,  and  thou  shalt  eat 
the  herbs  of  the  earth.  In  the  sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat 
bread,  till  thou  return  to  the  earth,  out  of  which  thou  wast  taken  : 
for  dust  thou  art,  and  into  dust  shalt  thou  return." 

of  Adam's  conjugal  love,  wliich  she  had  abused.  Witliont  noticing 
tlie  opinion  that  ber  concci)tions  were  actually  increased  lieyond  the 
nuiiilier  which  they  would  have  reached  in  paradise  (Kpbr.),  we  may 
safely  regard  the  plirase  as  a  Hebrew  idiom,  meaning  :  "  I  will  mul 
tii)lv"tbe  sorrows  of  tliy  conceptions."  Both  gestation  and  childbirth 
would  have  been  painie.ss  in  num's  state  of  innocence,  but  after  tiie 
sin  (iod's  sentence;  states  :  "  In  sorrow  shalt  thou  l)ring  b)rtb  chil- 
dren." And  as  if  it  were  not  enough  to  be  tlius  jiunislied  in  the  two 
physical  conseipieMces  of  her  conjugal  love,  (iod  adds  tlie  penalty  of 
having  to  bear  the  evil  of  two  moral  effects  of  thesauu!.  TLe  Hebrew 
text  suggests  the  following  meaning  of  this  additional  punishment  : 
"  notwitlistanding  the  great  pain  which  will  follow,  tliou  slialt  desire 
after  tby  husband,  or  thy  desires  shall  be  conformable  to  thy  hus- 
band's will,  and  he  shall  have  dondnion  over  thee."  In  tlu'  light  of 
historv  tbe  grievousness  of  the  sentence  becomes  ai>palling.  The 
degradation  and  moral  slavery  to  which  women  were  subject  befon; 
the  time  of  Clirist,  and  to  wliich  they  are  even  now  exi)osed  in  un- 
christian nations,  are  so  well  known  that  they  need  no  further  de- 
scription. 

'*  c.  Srntenre  tn/niiist  Adam. — Adam's  ]mnisliment  too  well  suits 
his  sin  :  he  had  yielded  to  the  love  of  a  creature  in  iirelVrence  to  tliat 
of  (Jod,  and  now"  the  creature  will  turn  against  him  ;  lie  bad  eaten  of 
the  forbidden  fruit,  and  now  the  earth  will  refuse  him  the  necessary 
food  ;  be  bad  disol)eye(i  his  Maker  and  bis  (iod,  and  now  tbe  earth 
over  which  (Iod  lias  given  liim  domiidon  will  disobey  him.  Abuse 
of  authority  on  tbe  part  of  the  rational  creature  will  thus  bring  about 
rebellion  and  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  irrational  creature. 

The  sentence  itself  develops  the  punishment  step  by  step  :  1.  Tlie 
earth  is  cursed  in  general,  in  so  far  as  it  will  oblige  .\(lam  to  toil  for 
his  food  ;  2.  the  uneatalile  products  of  the  earth  will  be  multiplied, 
its  consumable  products  will  deteriorate  and  grow  scarce  ;  :5.  even 
tliese  deterinrated  articles  of  food  will  re(|uire  bard  l.-dior  ,  \.  all  this 
will  contimie  tlirougliout  Adam's  life  time;  ."i.  liiially,  the  eartli  will 
reclaim  man's  liody. 


THE  ME  SSI  AS  IS  THE  SEED   OF  THE   WOMAN.  207 


Cokollaky:    The  Messianic  Character  of  the 
Passage. 

1,  Christian  Testimony. — The  Fathers  of  the  Church 
unanimously  speak  of  Eve  as  the. type  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin Mary — a  type  founded  both  on  the  striking  similitude 
and  dissimilitude  of  its  antitype.  Referring  to  the  learned 
workof  Passaglia  (De  imm.  con'icptione,  t.  ii.  pp.  812  f.)  for 
the  fuller  development  of  this  doctrine,  we  must  for  the 
present  content  ourselves  with  the  view  of  the  Church 
expressed  clearly  in  her  liturgy,  tlie  common  reading  of 
her  authentic  Latin  version  of  the  Bible,  and  the  Papal 
bull  "  Ineffabilis  Deus,"  in  Avhicli  the  dogma  of  the  Im- 
maculate Concejjtion  is  taught  ex  cathedra.  From  all 
this  we  rightly  infer  that  the  Holy  Ghost,  when  inspiring 

-•this  prophecy,  intended  to  point  out  typically  tlie  Blessed 
Mother  Mary  and  her  signal  enmity  against  the  devil. 
And  since  he  even  then  clearly  foreknew  the  whole  extent 
of  this  enmity,  we  reasonably  conclude  that  he  also  in- 
tended to  foreshadow  its  plenitude,  especially  as  it  is  mani- 
fested in  her  immaculate  conception. 

2.  Rabbinic  Testimony.— But  for  the  present  we  are 
rather  in  search  of  arguments  for  the  Messianic  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Synagogue  given  to  the  so-called  Protevangel. 
It  is  true  that  the  Pabbinic  writers  have  used  the  passage 
in  a  most  curious  context,  which  seems  at  first  sight  to 
exclude  all  Messianic  interpretation.  We  need  only  refer 
to  the  commentary  given  of  Gen.  ii.  4,  as  explained  in 
Ber.  R.  13  (ed.  Warsh.  p.  24  b).  The  Hebrew  word  for 
generations,  "toledoth,"  is  ahvays  written  in  the  Bible 
without  the  quiescent  letter  ^  (vav) — a  letter  signifying  the 
numerical  value  six.  In  Gen.  ii.  4  and  Ruth  iv.  IS,  how- 
ever, the  quiescent  letter  occurs  in  "toledoth."  Tliis  fact 
is  thus  interpreted  by  the  Rabbinic  authority  above  re- 
ferred to.  After  the  fall,  i.e.,  sul^sequent  to  Gen.  ii.  4, 
Adam  lost  vav,   i.e.,  six  things:   his  glorious  sheen  (Job 


208  OENEALOOT  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

xiv.  20);  life  ((Jen.  iii.  19);  liis  stature  either  by  100,  or  by 
200,  or  by  300,  or  even  by  'JOO  cubits  ((jieu.  iii.  .S);  the  fruit 
of  the  ground;  tiic  fruits  of  tlie  trees  (CJen.  iii.  IT);  iiiul 
the  lieavenly  lights.  In  Gen.  ii.  4  tlie  i  (vuv)  is  still  in  the 
"  toleiloth,"  because  Adam  still  jjossesses  the  six  gifts,  aiul 
the  letter  reappears  in  Ruth  iv.  18,  because  these  six  things 
are  to  be  restored  to  man  by  the  "  son  of  Pharez,"  or  the 
Messias.  Though  according  to  the  literal  i-eiulering  of 
Ps.  xlviii.  (xlix.)  12  (in  Hebrew  KJ)  man  did  not  remain 
unfallen  one  single  night,  yet  for  the  sake  of  the  .Sabbath 
the  heavenly  lights  were  not  extinguished  till  after  the 
close  of  the  Sabbath.  It  is  added  that  when  Adam  saw 
the  darkness  he  was  very  much  afraid,  saying:  "  Perha])s 
he  of  whom  it  is  wi'itten, '  he  shall  bruise  thy  head,  and 
thou  shalt  bruise  his  heel,'  cometh  to  molest  and  attack 
me,"  and  he  said:  "The  darkness  shall  surely  cover  me." 
In  reference  to  the  six  tilings,  comiJai'e:  Judg.  v.  'M  b;  I^ 
Ixviii.  22;  Lev.  xxvi.  13;  Zach.  viii.  12;  Is.  xxx.  2G  (cf. 
Edersheim,  "  The  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah,''  Oth 
ed..  New  York,  ii.  p.  711). 

3.  But  whatever  may  have  given  rise  to  such  a  context, 
Rabbinic  literature  certainly  acknowledges  the  Messianic 
bearing  of  Gen.  iii.  15.  "  The  voice  of  the  Lord  God  walk- 
ing in  paradise"  is  identified  with  the  Shechinah  and  the 
Middle  Column.  The  Targ.  Jonathan  has  it:  "Ami  Ihey 
heard  the  voice  of  the  Word  of  the  Lord  which  walked 
about  in  the  garden."  The  Jerusalem  Targ.  has  in  the 
following  verse:  "  And  the  Word  of  the  Lord  called  Adam." 
Tikkune  Zohar  (c.  G  princ.)  writes:  "They  heard  the  voice 
of  the  Lord,  which  was  the  Middle  Column,  and  the  Shech- 
inah was  with  it.  The  voicv  walking  in  the  garden  was  (he 
Middle  Colunni."  And  again:  '-The  voice  in  the  garden 
was  the  Shechinah."  And  in  another  place  (Hammidi)ar 
Kabba,  sect.  13,  fol.  218,  i.)  it  is  written:  "Was  not  the 
jn-incipal  occupation  of  the  Shechimih  this,  that  it  dwelled 
on  earth?  as  it  is  written:  And  they  heard  the  voice  (»r 
the  Lord  walkinij  in  the  garden."     Philo  has  the  following 


THE  MESSIA8  IS  THE  SEED   OF  THE   WOMAN.  209 

remarks  (Do  somniis,  jd.  4G1):  "The  Holy  Word  has  coiu- 
manded  some  wliat  to  do,  as  their  king;  others  it  lias  use- 
fully instructed  as  a  teacher  informs  his  disciples;  others, 
again,  it  has  advised  in  the  best  manner  as  their  counsellor, 
since  they  could  not  advise  themselves.  Besides,  it  has 
committed  to  others  all  kinds  of  secrets,  which  an  unini- 
tiated person  must  not  hear.  At  times,  too,  it  asks  persons : 
Where  art  thou  ?  as  it  asked  Adam."  Moreover,  the  Messias 
is  represented  by  the  Rabbinic  writers  as  having  repeatedly 
visited  our  parents  in  paradise  (Bereshith  Rabba,  sect.  11, 
fol.  11,  3;  sect.  12,  fol.  12,4  ;  Zohar  chadash,  fol.  82,  4). 

The  thirteenth  verse  of  the  context  is  also  explained  so 
as  to  allude  to  the  Messias.,  For  Tikkune  Zohar  (c.  98, 
princ.)  paraphrases  the  words,  "  Why  hast  thou  done  t^his  ?" 
so  as  to  refer  the  "  this  "  to  the  Messias.  In  this  manner 
the  sin  committed  against  "  this "  has  been  committed 
against  the  Shechinah. 

But  it  is  especially  when  treating  of  the  fifteenth  verse 
tluit  the  Rabbinic  writers  become  clear  and  definite  beyond 
all  possible  misunderstanding.  The  Jerusalem  Targum 
thus  paraplirases  the  passage:  "And  it  shall  come  to  pass, 
when  the  children  of  the  woman  shall  labor  in  the  law,  and 
perform  the  commandments,  that  they  shall  bruise  and 
smite  thee  on  the  head,  and  shall  kill  thee;  but  when  the 
children  of  the  woman  shall  forsake  the  precepts  of  the 
law,  and  shall  not  perform  the  commandments,  thou  shalt 
bruise  and  smite  them  on  their  heel  and  hurt  them;  but 
there  shall  be  remedy  for  the  children  of  the  woman,  but 
for  thee,  0  serpent,  there  shall  be  no  remedy;  for  hereafter 
they  shall  to  each  other  perform  a  healing  in  the  heel,  in 
the  latter  end  of  the  days,  in  the  days  of  King  Messias." 

The  Targum  of  Jonatlian  speaks  in  the  same  strain,  and 
then  concludes:  "Nevertheless  there  shall  be  a  remedy  for 
them,  but  to  thee  there  shall  not  be  a  remedy;  for  they 
shall  hereafter  perform  a  healing  in  the  heel  in  the  days  of 
King  Messias." 

The  Talmud  Sota  (fol.  49,  col.  2)  speaks  of  the  heels  of 


210  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESS  I  AS. 

tlic  Mcssias,  and  (liiis  doscribes  the  tiiiicMvlicii  tlioy  will  bu 
bruised:  **  l\al)l)i  IMiiclias,  the  son  of  Yair,  said:  SSince  the 
destruetion  of  the  Temple,  the  Sages  and  the  Nobles  are 
ashamed  and  cover  their  heads.  The  wonder-workers  are 
disdained,  and  those  who  rely  upon  their  arm  and  tongue 
have  become  great.  There  is  none  who  teaches  Israel, 
none  who  })rays  for  the  peo])le,  none  who  inquires  [of  the 
Lord],  Upon  whom,  then,  are  Ave  to  trust?  Upon  our 
Father  who  is  in  heaven.'  Rabbi  Eliezer  the  Great  said: 
'  Since  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  the  Sages  liave  com- 
menced to  be  like  school-masters,  and  the  school-masters 
like  precentors,  and  the  precentors  like  the  laymen,  and 
these  too  grow  worse,  and  there  is  none  who  asks  or  in- 
([uirt's.  Upon  whom,  then,  are  we  to  trust?  Ui)on  our 
Father  wlio  is  in  heaven.  In  the  footprints  of  the  Messias 
iuij)U(l('nrc'  will  increase,  and  there  will  be  scarcity.  The 
vine  will  produce  its  fruit,  but  wine  will  be  dear.  The 
government  will  turn  itself  to  heresy,  and  there  will  be  no 
re})roof.  And  the  house  of  assembly  will  be  for  fornication. 
Galilee  will  be  destroyed,  and  Gablan  laid  waste,  and  men 
of  Gebul  will  go  from  city  to  city  and  find  no  favor.  And 
the  wisdom  of  the  scribes  will  stink, aiid  those  who  fear  sin 
will  be  desi)ised,  and  truth  will  fail.  l>oys  will  confuse  the 
faces  of  old  men.  Old  men  will  rise  up  before  the  young. 
The  son  will  treat  the  father  shamefully,  and  the  daughter 
will  I'ise  up  against  her  mother,  and  the  daughter-in-law 
against  her  mother-in-law,  and  a  man's  foes  will  be  those 
of  his  own  household.  The  face  of  that  generation  will  be 
as  the  face  of  a  dog;  the  son  will  have  no  shame  before 
his  father,  li^jion  whom,  then,  are  we  to  trust  ?  U])on  our 
Father  who  is  in  heaven  '"  (1.  c,  col.  a.b.). 

The  lirtcenlh  verse  receives  a  Messianic  interpretation 
also  in  Zohar  Gen.  (fol.  7(5,  col.  301  ;  fol.  77,  col.  305),  where 
the  phrase  "he  shall  crush  thy  head"  is  onceapjdied  to  the 
Messias,  and  again  to  the  ever- Itlessed  God.  Schotlgen 
conjectures  (hat  the  'i'almudic  di'signation  of  "  heels  of  the 
Messias"  (Sol.  4i»  b.,  line  "J   from  toji)    in   reference  to  the 


THE  MESSTAS  IS  THE  SEED   OF  THE   WOMAN.  211 

near  tidveut  of  tlie  Messias  in  tlie  description  of  the  troubles 
of  those  days  (of.  St.  Matt.  x.  35,  3(j)  may  have  been  chosen 
partly  with  a  view  to  this  passage. 

Then  again,  the  words  of  Eve  at  the  birth  of  Setli  (Gen. 
iv.  25)  seem  to  have  reference  to  our  2)rophecy.  For 
"another  seed"  is  explained  as  seed  that  comes  from 
another  place,  and  referred  to  the  Messias  in  Ber.  E.  23 
(ed,  AVarsh.  p.  45  b.,  lines  8  and  7  from  the  bottom).  The 
same  explanation  occurs  twice  in  the  Midrash  on  Ruth  iv. 
19  (in  the  genealogy  of  David,  cd.  AVarsh.  p.  4G  b.),  the 
second  time  in  connection  witli  Ps.  xxxix.  (xl.)  8,  "  in  the 
volume  of  the  book  it  is  written  of  me,"  Ruth  belonging  to 
the  class  of  "volumes,"  Megilloth,  which  consisted  of  Cant., 
Ruth,  Lament.,  Eccles.,  Esther. 

Besides  all  these  references,  the  Rabbinic  passages  which 
represent  the  Messias  as  a  true  man,  and  which  describe 
his  birth  and  childhood,  testify  to  his  being  the  son  of  a 
woman. 


212  GENKALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  yOX  OF  SEM.     Gen.  ix.  18-27.' 
IXTKODUCTIOX. 

Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecy.— <f.  Reasons 
from  the  Text. — 1.  The  very  words  iiKlicute  tluit  Juhveh,  the 
(ioil  of  thesupeniutunil  onler,  ^vill  betlie  Ciod  of  8ein.  It  is 
therefore  quite  pLain  tliiit  all  the  supeniutiiral  blessing  of 
the  human  race  will  come  through  Sein's  family.  2.  Be- 
sides, it  is  implied  that  these  blessings  will  be  many  and 
various;  instead  of  enumerating  them  all,  the  holy  ])atri- 
areh  simply  praises  Jahveh  for  them :  "  Blessed  be  Jahveh, 
the  God  of  Sem."  3.  Bochart  (Phaleg,  ii.  05  seqq.  ed.  iv.) 
beautifully  explains  why  Noe  does  not  bless  Sem  in  liis 
own  person,  as  he  blesses  Japhet  and  curses  Chanaaii, 
For  the  evil  that  is  in  us,  and  to  some  extent  also  the  nat- 
ural and  superiuitural  good,  is  owing  to  ourselves,  but  the 
benefit  of  redemption  is  owing  to  (Jod's  goodness  alone. 
IIen(!e,  Noe  blesses  (Jod  when  he  comes  to  S])eak  of  Sem. 
4.  It  must  also  be  noted  that  the  present  j)ro])hecy  is  the 
countei'part  of   the  protcvangelium  :    the   latter  indicates 

'  'I'ln'  pasf^ai^e  may  Ik^  divided  into  two  parts:  1.  A'cr.ses  18-24  i^ivL' 
an  account  of  the  occasion  wiiicli  t;avf  rise  to  Noe's  prophecy;  'J. 
Verses  25-27  contain  tlie  tri])le  propiiecy.  Before  (h'scriliiiig:  tlie 
occasion  of  the  ])atriarch's  bh'ssiiifjf,  the  inspired  writi>r  lirietly  states 
the  importance  of  tlie  whole  incident.  As  the  first  Mi-ssianic  proph- 
ecy is  cijnnected  with  the  sin  of  the  first  father  of  the  whole  hninan 
race,  so  is  the  second  ])roniise  connected  with  a  material  sin  of  the 
second  fatlier  of  the  hunum  race.  Ilenct^  it  is  that  tlie  three  sons  of 
the  i)atriarch  are  enumerated  and  representi'ii  as  the  proi^enitors  of 
the  wliole  hunum  I'amilv. 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  SEM.  213 

that  tlie  redemption  will  come  tlirongli  the  seed  of  the 
woman,  i.e.,  througii  man;  Noe's  prophecy  announces  that 
our  supernatural  good  will  come  through  (Jod's  s])ecial 
dwelling  in  the  tents  of  Sem,  i.e.,  through  God.  In  the 
suhsequent  development  of  the  Messianic  prophecies  some- 
times the  human  side  of  the  Redeemer,  sometimes  the 
divine  side,  is  represented,  until  finally  the  two  lines  of 
predictions  coalesce  in  the  God  -  man  Jesus  Christ  (cf. 
Briggs,  '*'  IMessianic   Prophecy,"  jip.  83  f,). 

h.  Reasons  from  Authority.— *S7.  Augustine  understands 
the  prophecy  in  a  Messianic  sense  where  he  explains  the 
blessing  of  Japhet:  "It  was  precisely  this  that  was  \)yq- 
dicted  when  it  was  said:  May  God  enlarge  Japhet, and  may 
he  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Sem,  i.e.,  in  the  churches  which 
the  sons  of  the  prophets,  the  apostles,  have  constructed." 
The  ]\Iessianic  reference  of  the  hlessiug  is  then,  accord- 
ing to  the  great  African  Doctor,  certain  beyond  all 
doubt.  St.  Jerome  too  refers  Noe's  words  to  the  same 
Messianic  fultilment  (Qua^stiones  Gen.,  Ojjp.  t.  iii.  p.  134): 
"When  he  says:  May  he  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Sem, 
he  pro^ihesies  about  us,  who  are  in  possession  of  the 
knowledge  and  the  science  of  the  Scriptures  after  Israel 
has  been  rejected."  Even  Jonathan  explains  the  holy 
patriarch's  words  concerning  Sem  as  referring  to  Senr's 
spiritual  blessedness:  "  The  Lord  will  render  illusti'ious  tlie 
boundary  of  Japhet,  and  his  sons  Avill  become  proselytes, 
and  live  in  the  school  of  Sem."  *S7.  Ju.stin.  ao-rees 
in  his  exposition  with  that  of  St.  Augustine,  interpretin'"- 
the  living  of  the  Japhetites  in  the  tents  of  Sem  as  their 
conversion  to  the  faith  in  Christ  (cf,  Justin.,  Dialog,  cum 
Tryphone,  August.,  de  Civitate  Dei,  1.  xvi.  c.  2,  etc.). 
JRzqjertus  too  sees  in  the  patriarch's  blessing  a  prediction 
of  the  Gentiles'  conversion  to  Christianity  (1.  iv.  in  Gen.). 
As  to  Jewish  authorities,  Ave  may  first  of  all  point  to  the 
above  words  of  the  Targum  of  Pseudo-Jonathan.  The 
ancient  book  Bercshitli  I?abl>a  (sect.  3G,  fol.  35,4)  remarks 
on  "may  he  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Sem":  "The  Shechinah 


214  GENE  A  LOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

dwells  only  in  the  tents  of  Seni."  And  since  tlic  Sliec^liinali 
is  repeatedly  identified  with  the  Messius,  it  follows  that 
the  treatise  quoted  sees  a  Messianic  reference  in  Noe's 
words. 

c.  Reasons  from  Convenience.  — It  may  be  of  interest  to 
consider  a  few  reasons  which  show  d  j>riuri,  as  it  were, 
the  Messianic  reference  of  Noe's  blessing  to  the  Messi- 
anic times.  a.  When  the  human  race  is  split  nji  into  dif- 
ferent families,  the  divine  names  too  are  distributed  among 
the  various  families:  Elohim  is  the  God  of  the  Jaj)hetitcs, 
Jahveh  is  the  God  of  the  Semites  (cf.  Orelli,  '' ( )ld  Testa- 
ment Prophecy,"  }).  OS).  It  is  therefore  fit  that  on  the  same 
occasion  the  gi'iieral  promise  of  salvation  given  to  the 
whole  human  race  should  be  in  so  far  i)articularized  as 
to  determine  the  brant;li  which  would  be  the  saving  medi- 
ator, h.  Again,  since  Messianic  promises  are  connected 
with  all  the  mediators  with  whom  God  made  a  special  cove- 
nant— with  Adam,  Abraham,  Moses — it  is  antecedently  prob- 
able that  a  ^lessianic  jjromise  should  be  connected  with 
the  renniining  Old  Testament  mediator  too;  for  the  cove- 
nant which  God  made  with  Noe  is  the  second  of  the  four 
great  covenants  regulating  the  relations  between  God  and 
man  before  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ  (cf.  Elliott,  "Old 
Testament  I'rophecy,'' p.  194). 

d.  Exceptions  Answered. — 1.  If  any  one  should  find  it 
hard  to  nnderstand  the  tents  of  Sem  as  designating  the 
Ghurch,  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  word  has  a  sim- 
ilar figurative  meaning  veiK'atedly.  I'hus  in  Zach.  xii.  T 
"  the  tents  of  Juda,"  in  Mai.  ii.  12,  "  the  tents  of  Jacob  " 
are  designations  for  the  theocracy.  In  the  Gospel  of  Luke, 
xvi.  0,  there  is  question  of  a  reception  into  everlasting  hab- 
itations, instead  of  admittance  into  the  kingdom  of  God. 
At  any  rate,  this  difliculty  alTects  only  those  who  j)refer 
Japhet  to  God  as  the  subject  of  the  clause  "  may  he  dwell 
in  the  tents  of  Sem."  2.  The  exception  that  several  of 
the  patristic  testimonies  are  irrelevant,  because  they  evi- 
dently regard  Japhet  and   not  God  as  the  subject  of  the 


THE  ME88IAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  SEM.  215 

clause  "  may  he  dwell,"  is  not  to  the  point.  For  whatever 
special  interpretation  they  may  give  of  the  details  of  Noe's 
prophecy,  they  certainly  refer  the  whole  to  the  Messias, 
and  this  is  all  we  need  for  the  trntli  of  our  thesis. 

e.  Arguments  from  the  New  Testament. — Finally,  the 
Messianic  ])romise  given  to  Noe,  or  rather  through  Noe  to 
Sem,  is  several  times  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament.  St. 
Paul, in  his  epistle  to  the  Ephesians  (ii.  14), consoles  them  with 
the  following  words:  "  For  he  is  our  peace,  who  hath  made 
both  one,  and  breaking  down  the  middle  wall  of  partition, 
the  enmities  in  his  flesh."  These  words  alone  would  per- 
haps be  too  obscure  to  be  taken  as  an  allusion  to  tlie  par- 
tition between  the  three  human  races;  but  then  the  aj^ostle 
adds  (ii.  19):  "Now,  therefore,  you  are  no  more  strangers 
and  foreigners:  but  you  are  fellow-citizens  with  the  saints, 
and  the  domestics  of  God."  What  more  striking  fulfil- 
ment of  the  j^rediction  "may  Japhet  dwell  in  the  tents  of 
Sem,"  i.e.,  of  Jahveb's  special  client,  could  St.  Paul  have 
pointed  out  in  the  Christian  dispensation  ?  And  lest  any 
one  should  imagine  that  Sem  has  been  dispossessed  entirely 
of  his  tents,  the  same  apostle  writes  to  the  Romans  (xi.  25): 
"  For  I  would  not  have  you  ignorant,  brethren,  of  this 
mystery  (lest  you  should  be  wise  in  your  own  conceits) : 
that  blindness  in  part  hath  happened  in  Israel,  until  the 
fulness  of  the  Gentiles  should  come  in,  and  so  all  Israel 
sliould  be  saved." 

Gen.  IX.  18-27. 

And  ^the  sons  of  Noe,  who  came  out  of  the  ark,  were  Sem, 
Chiuu,  and  Japhet,  and  Cham  is  the  father  of  Chanaan.     These 

-  The  sons  of  Noe.  The  question  asked  here  is  whether  the  three 
sons  are  enumerated  acct)rdino^  to  tlieir  af>"e.  a.  The  order,  Sem, 
Cham,  Japhet,  is  followed  in  (ien.  v  ;j3;  vi.  10;  vii.  l:^;  ix.  (i;  x.  1; 
hence  St.  Auoustine,  St.  Enclierius,  a  Lapide,  Ilosenmiiller,  Keil.  Dill- 
niann,  and  others  have  inferred  that  Cham  was  (dder  than  Japliet 
and  younger  than  Sem.  b.  On  the  other  hand,  Lamy,  Knol)el,  De- 
litzsch,  Ivange,  and  others  contend  that  Cham  was  the  ymmgest  of 
Noe's  sons,  on  account  of  verse  24:  "  when  he  heard  what  \i\ii  younger 
son    had   done   to  him."      For    the    Hebrew   expression    translated 


216  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 

three  are  the  sons  of  Noe,  and  from  these  was  all  mankind  spread 
over  the  whole  earth.  And  Noe,  a  husbandman,'  began  to  till 
the  ground,  and  planted  a  vineyard.  And  drinking  of  the  wine, 
was  made  drunk,  and  was^  uncovered  in  his  tent.  Which  when 
Cham,  the  father  of  Chanaan,  had  seen,  to  wit  that  his  fatlier's 
nakedness  was  uncovered,  he  told  it  to  his  two  brethren  without. 
But  Sem  and  Japhet  put  a  cloak  upon  their  shoulders,  and  going 
backward,  covered  the  nakedness  of  their  fatiier;  and  their  faces 

"younger"  Las  the  meaning  of  a  comparative  only  when  there  is 
question  of  two,  while  it  has  the  force  of  tlie  superlative  when  it 
refers  to  more  than  two  (cf.  (ien.  x.wii.  15;  x.xix.  18;  xlii.  13; 
xliv.  3;  I.  Kings  xvi.  11;  xvii.  12-14).  As  to  the  passages  above  cited 
for  tlur  previous  opinion,  the  adherents  of  the  second  oi>inion  say 
that  tlic  I?ihle  doi'S  not  always  follow  the  ordtT  of  seniority  in  its 
enumerations  (cf.  I.  i'ar.  i.  28;  ii.  2).  That  Sem  was  the  eldest  of 
Noe's  sons  is  evident  fmm  (ien.  x.  21:  "Of  Sem  also,  the  father  of 
all  the  children  of  lleher,  the  elder  brother  of  .Ia])het,  sons  were 
born."  '•.  In  order  to  do  justice  to  both  opinions,  it  must  be 
stated  that  the  adherents  of  the  first  .sometimes  explain  the  phrase 
"  Ins  j/iiiiiiijcr  son"  as  referring  to  Noe's  grandson  Chanaan,  who  had 
first  of  all  seen  the  ])atriarch's  nakedness  and  made  light  ot  it;  it  was 
probably  he  who  had  told  Cham  of  it.  Again,  the  LXX.  Synun., 
\'en.,  Lth.,  ami  the  Masoretic  accentnators  interpret  (len.  x.  21  as 
meaning  "the  brother  of  .laphet,  the  eldest,"  so  that  according  to 
them  .laphet,  Cham,  Sem  would  be  the  order  of  seniority,  d.  \N Cll- 
hatisen  and  Ibnlde's  assertion  that  the  orijrinal  text  read  Sem,  Japhet, 
Chanaan,  and  that  Cham  lias  been  inserted  by  the  compiler,  falls 
with  their  system  of   i'entatcuch  criticism. 

^  Noe  began  to  till  the  ground.  It  is  not  stated  whether  the  cul- 
tivation ot'  the  vine  was  known  befoie  the  Hood,  or  was  lirst  intro- 
duced hy  Noe.  Matt.  x.\iv.  38  inclines  us  to  bebu've  that  the  use  of 
wine  existed  even  before  the  earth  was  visited  by  the  deluge.  But 
whatever  wt;  may  think  of  this  point,  St.  Chryso.stom,  'I'heodoret.  and 
St.  Jerome  are  of  opinion  that  Noe's  drunkenness  was  not  sinful, 
because  he  did  not  know  the  strength  of  the  wine;  St.  K])hrem  ix- 
cnses  the  ]>atriarch  from  all  sin  hecause  his  intoxic;.ti  m  was  due  to 
his  total  alistinence  from  all  strong  driidc  juactised  tor  many  years 
ju'evioiis  to  the  occiiiniK  e  which  gave  rise  to  the  projdiecy  now 
under  cniisijri-itidii. 

*  Was  uncovered.  The  fact  that  Xoe  uncovered  himself  is  i>robably 
owing  to  the  heat  of  th«'  wine.  Thus  was  he  who  had  not  be«'n 
touched  by  the  waters  of  tlu^  flood  overcon.e  liy  the  influence  of 
wine.  The  l''athers  see  in  Nee  thus  exi>osed  a  ty))*-  of  Christ  hanging 
n:iked  on  the  cross  (JeroMi(>,  c.  Lucif. ;  Aug.  Cypriai\,  etc.).  'i'ho 
llelncw  text  speaks  of  "  the  cloak  "  instead  of  "  a  <doak,"  thus  indi- 
catiii;r  that  Noe  had  thrown  olT  his  cloak  like  garment,  or  tin' siinlah, 
and  that  Sem  and  .laphet  replaced  the  same  The  phrase  "awaking 
from  the  wini'"  means  nothing  else  but  awaking  Irom  the  elTccts  of 
the  wine. 


THE  MES8IA8  IS  THE  SON  OF  SEM.  217 

were  tiirned  away,  and  they  saw  not  their  father's  nakedness. 
And  Noe,  awaking  from  the  wine,  when  he  had  learned  wliat  his 
younger  son  had  done  to  him,  he  ^  said:  "Cnrsed  bo  "^  Clianaan, 

'  He  said.  Having  thus  far  considered  the  occasion  of  the  prophecy, 
we  must  now  review  the  prediction  itself.  As  to  form,  it  consists  of 
three  members:  the  first  is  a  curse  of  Chanaan  ;  tlie  second  blesses 
Sem  and  again  curses  Chanaan;  the  third  blesses  J ajjbet  and  probably 
Sem,  but  certainly  insists  again  on  the  curse  of  Cbanaan.  A  few  re- 
marks must  be  made  about  each  of  the  three  members  :  1.  Why  is 
( "hanaan  cursed  instead  of  Cliam  V  2.  What  is  the  precise  meaning  of 
the  Hebrew  word  which  is  translated  by  "  enlarging  "V  3.  What  is 
tlie  subject  of  the  clause  "may  he  dwell  in  tbe  tents  of  Senr"? 
4.  What  are  the  tents  of  Sem? 

"  Cursed  be  Chanaan.  1.  The  substitution  of  Chanaan  for  Cliam  as 
the  subject  of  tlie  patriarch's  curse  has  been  variously  explained  by 
different  authors,  a.  If  we  accejit  in  the  first  place  the  opinion  of 
several  Jewish  writers  (cf.  Origen,  Selecta  in  (ien.)  that  Chanaan  was 
the  first  who  had  sinned  against  Noe's  authority,  his  punishment 
will  appear  the  natural  consequence,  b.  But  even  without  this  sup- 
position, Cham,  Noe's  youngest  son,  was  severely  punished  in  the 
curse  of  his  youngest  son,  as  all  the  parents  suffer  in  the  misfcrtune 
of  their  children,  c.  Chfinaan  was  cliosen  as  the  suliject  of  the  jire- 
(licted  punishment,  because  God  in  his  wisdom  foresaw  the  future 
perverseness  of  Clianaan's  race.  (/.  At  all  events,  wlieu  there  is 
(jiiestion  of  merely  temporal  punishments,  it  is  not  at  all  uncommon 
that  the  innocent  are  made  to  suffer  instead  of  the  guilty,  even  down 
to  the  fourth  generation  (cf.  Gen.  xx.).  e.  The  Fathers  think  that 
Noe  did  not  inflict  his  curse  directly  on  Cham  because  he  did  not 
consider  himself  authorized  to  curse  him  whom  God  had  blessed  on 
his  leaving  the  ark.  /.  Others  again  think  that  all  Cham's  de- 
scendants were  cursed,  but  that  Chanaan  is  mentioned  to  animate 
Israel  against  its  enemies,  the  Chanaanites. 

The  curse  itself  consists  in  Clianaan's  becoming  the  servant  of  ser- 
vants, i.e.,  the  vilest  servant,  to  his  brethren  ;  and  such  has  become 
Chanaan's  condition,  both  UKjrally  and  socially.  The  moral  standing 
of  Chanaan's  descendants  is  well  illustrated  by  the  cities  of  the  Plain 
and  the  corruption  of  the  Chanaanite  races  as  described  by  Moses 
(cf.  Lev.  xviii.,  xx.,  Deut.  xii.  31).  The  immorality  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians and  the  Carthaginians  was  proverbial  even  in  Pagan  an- 
ticpiity  (cf.  Mlinter,  "  Religion  der  Carthager,"  p]>.  250  ff.).  The  his- 
tory of  Chanaan's  social  standing  is  equally  significant.  As  Moses 
and  Josue,  and  later  on  Solomon,  subjected  the  Chanaanites  of 
Palestine  to  the  rule  of  Sera's  descendants  (Jos.  ix.  21  ft.;  III.  Kings 
ix.  20  ff.),  so  did  the  Japhetites  subdue  the  Phoenicians  and  the 
Carthaginians  by  means  of  the  Persians,  the  Greeks,  and  the 
llomans.  Even  the  P^gyptian  descendants  of  Cham  have  shared  the 
same  fate  of  slavery,  or  they  are  even  now  involved  in  the  more 
galling  chains  of  sin  and  idolatry.  It  may  be  noted,  by  the  way,  that 
if  the  passage  containing  Chanaan's  curse  had  been  compo.sed  after  the 
destructicm  of  the  Chanaanites  by  means  of  the  Israelites,  it  surely 
would   have  been  couched   in  far  different  language;   there  would 


218  OENEALOOY  OF  THE  ME8SIAS. 

a  servant  of  servants  sliall  he  be  nnto  his  brethren."    And  he  said: 

have  been  at  least  traces  of  the  manner  in  which  the  fulfilment  of 
the  supposfd  prediction  was  really  accomplished. 

If  it  be  asked  what  becaiiu!  of  the  other  sons  of  Cham,  since  they 
are  not  iit  all  mentioned  in  the  whole  passage,  a.  Lauge  and 
Delitzsch  see  in  this  total  silence  a  bad  omen  for  their  future. 
b.  Others,  like  Keil,  are  of  opinion  that  all  the  sons  of  Cham  were 
virtually  cursed  in  their  youngest  brother  Chanaan.  The  curse  here 
sjioken  of  does  not,  however,  exclude  from  life  eternal ;  here,  as  in 
the  case  of  Esau,  it  refers  directly  to  the  temjioral  welfare  of  its 
objects.  If  the  children  who  must  thus  bear  the  sins  f)f  their 
l)arenfs  serve  (Jod  with  their  whole  heart,  their  want  of  temporal 
ju-ospeiity  will  prove  a  sjiiritual  blessing. 

■"  May  God  enlarge  Japhet.  2.  'I"he  second  point  concerning  which 
interpreters  differ  is  the  exact  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word  trans- 
lated "may  (Cod)  enlarge."  The  primary  meaning  of  the  verb 
seems  to  be  "  to  persuath',  to  enable  one  to  do  a  thing."  .1.  Owing 
to  this  fact,  several  interpreters  have  translated  "  alliciat  Deus 
Japhetum,  ut  habitet  in  tentoriis  yemi."  There  are,  however,  a 
number  of  reasons  militating  again.st  this  interpretation  :  a.  Only 
Piel  is  said  to  be  used  in  the;  above  sense,  while  the  verb  in  the 
l>resent  passage  is  in  the  Hiphil  form.  h.  Besides,  the  meaning  "to 
persuade  "  appiir.rs  to  be  mostly  used  in  its  bad  sense ;  however,  in 
Jer.  XX.  7  it  has  a  good  sense,  c.  The  verb  in  the  sense  "to  per- 
suade" is  always  used  with  the  accusative,  not  with  the  preposition 
V,  as  it  is  used  in  the  instance  now  under  consideration.  7>.  This 
last  motive  has  induced  Kellc.  to  translate,  "May  (iod  intercede  for 
Jai)het."  Hut  this  interi)retati(in  appears  very  unnatural.  ('.  Hence 
it  is  ])referabl(?  to  follow  the  interpretation  of  the  LXX  ,  the  Vulgate, 
Oidielos,  aiul  the  .Arabic  versirm,  which  give  to  the  verb  the  mean- 
ing "to  be  broad,"  a  meaning  which  it  has  also  in  Prov.  .\.\.  19. 
The  corresponding  Chaldee  verb  is  commonly  taken  in  the  sense  "to 
be  broad."  Besides  all  this,  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  verbs  of  a 
similar  import  arc^  elsewhere  construed  with  the  jireposition  V  (cf- 
(Jen.  xxvi.  22;  I's.  iv.  2;  Prov.  xviii.  Ui).  Tlie  i)redicti<m  which 
results  from  this  interjjretation,  that  ■Iai)het  is  to  have  a  numerous 
po.sterity  which  shall  po.ssess  widely  exteiuied  territories,  has  found 
its  historical  fuUilinent  ;  the  <le.scendants  of  Japhet  have  gained 
l)ossessi(m  not  only  of  all  Europe,  but  also  of  a  large  portion  of 
Asia,  America,  and  Australia. 

*  May  he  dwell.  ;{.  A  tbird  question  is  raised  aliout  the  subject  of 
the  clau.sc  "  may  he  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Sem."  Is  it  of  .lajihet  that 
this  wish  is  exi)ressed,  or  does  it  refer  to  (Jod  himself  ?  A.  'i'he 
Turgum  of  Onkelos,  Philo.  Maimoni(h's,  Hashi,  A  hen  Ezra  Haum- 
garten,  Delitzsch,  Conaiit,  Lewis,  St.  Ephren\,  Theodoret,  l.yraniis, 
Tostatus,  and  others  are  of  oi)inion  that  (lod  is  the  subject  of  the 
«dause.  The  reasons  lor  this  view  may  be  reduced  to  the  following 
(cf.  Hriggs,  "iMessianic  Proi)hecy,"  pp.  S2  f.):  a.  It  is  i)rohable  that 
the  subject  of  the  |)rereding  verb  continues  in  the  ])resent  clause,  esju'- 
cially  on  account  of  the  law  of  paralleli>ni  l<.  The  whole  proi)hec.y 
coiiM^ts  of  seven  lines.      The  {\\>\   I  wo  contain  Chanaau's  curse  ;   the 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  SEM.  219 

"  Blessed  be  the  Lord  God  of  Sem,  be  Chanaan  his  servRBt.    May 

second  two  contain  Sem's  blessing  and  Chanaan's  curse  by  way  of 
refrain,  Sein  and  Chanaan  being  co-ordinated.  Hence  it  is  probable 
that  in  the  last  three  lines,  in  which  all  three  are  mentioned,  Sem, 
Chanaan,  and  Japhet  are  co-ordinated  too.  But  this  would  not  be 
the  case  if  Japhet  were  the  subject  of  the  clause  "may  he  dwell"; 
for  on  that  supposition  Japhet  becomes  the  central  hgure  of  the 
tristich.  c.  Another  reason  for  not  subordinating  Sem  to  Japhet  in 
the  last  tristich  is  the  fact  that  Sem  is  the  more  prominent  in  the 
whole  context.  (/.  In  the  previous  distich  God  is  called  the  God  of 
Sem  ;  hence  it  seems  proper  that  the  God  of  Sem  will  live  in  the 
tents  of  Sem.  e.  If  Japhet  were  to  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Sem,  the 
natural  inference  would  be  that  Japhet  would  conquer  Sem's  terri- 
tory— an  interpretation  which  implies  Sem's  humiliation.  /.  The  sub- 
sequent history  and  the  development  of  the  Messianic  prophecies  show 
that  Sem  should  be  the  prominent  figure  in  the  wdiole  ])rophecy.  If 
God  be  taken  as  the  subject  of  the  clause  "  may  he  dwell,"  this  end 
is  obtained  in  a  most  striking  and  beautiful  way  :  Chanaan  is  cursed 
thrice,  Sem  is  blessed  twice,  and  Japhet  is  blessed  once. 

B.  On  the  other  liand,  it  must  be  remembered  that  Chrysostom, 
Augustine,  Jerome,  Michaelis,  Vater,  (lesenius,  Drach,  Lamy,  liosen- 
muller,  Knobel,  Tuch,  Delitzsch,  Ewald,  Dillinann,  and  others  make 
Japhet  the  subject  of  the  clause  "may  he  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Sem." 
The  reasons  for  this  interpretation  are  reduced  by  Delitzsch  (Neuer 
Commentar  liber  die  Genesis,  in  h.  1.)  to  the  following  headings  : 
a.  As  the  preceding  distich  has  Sem  for  the  subject  of  its  blessing, 
so  must  the  last  tristich  have  Japhet  for  the  subject  of  its  benedic- 
tion, b.  Though  the  verb  in  the  clause  under  consideration  often 
signifies  God's  dwelling  anywhere,  still  this  idea  is  already  implicitly 
contained  in  th(!  distich  where  (iod  is  called  the  God  of  Sem.  c. 
Sem's  (iod  is  name<l  Jahveh,  while  according  to  the  above  interpre- 
tation Elohim  would  be  the  (iod  dwelling  in  the  tents  of  Sem. 
d.  The  ])lural  "tents  "  appears  to  indicate  a  plural  or  collective  sub- 
ject, and  the  idea  that  (iod  dwells  in  the  tent  of  any  Israelite  is 
foreign  to  the  Old  Testament  as  being  contrary  to  the  belief  in  the 
one  place  of  divine  worship,  e.  The  dwelling  of  Japhet  in  Sem's 
tents  beautifully  shows  that  the  two  brothers  are  to  share  the  divine 
blessing,  as  they  were  sharers  in  the  act  of  filial  piety.  /.  Delitzsch 
himself  rejects  St.  Justin's  statement  that  this  prediction  found  its 
fulfilment  when  the  Romans  subdued  Palestine,  because  such  a 
l)rophecy  would  have  been  a  curse  rather  than  a  blessing,  g.  Dill- 
mann  sees  in  the  words  a  prediction  of  the  future  reception  of  the 
Japhetites  into  the  Semitic  kingdoms.  But  it  is  more  likely  that  the 
])rophecy  regards  Sem's  tents  taken  in  their  more  limited  meaning, 
i.e.,  as  the  tents  of  Israel  ;  thus  the  future  salvation  of  the  Japhetites 
by  means  of  the  Israelite  Messias  Avould  be  predicted,  h.  The 
'i'abnud,  too,  takes  Japhet  to  be  the  subject  of  the  clause  "may  he 
dwell,"  and  infers  from  this  passage  the  lawful  use  of  the  (Jreek 
language  in  the  sacred  service  of  the  Synagogue  (Megilla  9b  ;  jer. 
Megilla  i.  9). 

'  In  the  tents  of  Sem.     4.  Finally,  it  is  of  interest  {a)  that  several 


220  OENEALOOY  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 

God'  enlarge  Japliet,  and  may"  he  dwell  in  tlie"  tents  of  Sera, 
and  Chanaan  be  his  servant." 

COROLLAEY. 

a.  By  means  of  tliis  prophecy  the  Messianic  blessings 
were  certainly  connected  with  the  family  of  Seni.  h.  Prob- 
ably it  was  also  understood  that  man's  salvation  was  to  be 
accomplished  by  God's  dwelling  in  a  special  manner  among 
men. 

authors  translate,  "in  tlie  tents  of  a  name"  or  "in  tents  of  glory," 
instead  of  "in  the  tents  of  Sem."  Thongli  writers  like  (^esenins, 
de  Wette,  Knobel,  Aiifi^cr.  and  Schrader  advocate  this  interpretation, 
(h)  it  is  very  iinjirohable  that  tlie  same  term  should  serve  as  proper 
name  and  as  common  noun  in  the  same  passage.  Hence  the  common 
opinion  is  preferable. 

It  has,  no  doul)t,  been  ])erceived  that  the  reasons  for  making 
"Japhet"  the  subject  of  the  clause  "may  he  dwell"  are  not  so 
cogent  as  those  for  looking  on  .lahveh  as  the  sul)ject.  The  Koyal 
P.salmist  seems  to  have  taken  this  view  of  the  ])a.ssage  when  he  says 
(Ps.  cxxxi.  (cxxxii.)  13,  14) :  "  The  Lord  hath  chosen  Sion  :  he  hath 
desired  it  for  his  habitation.  This  is  my  rest  for  ever  :  here  will  I 
dwell,  for  I  have  desired  it." 


THE  MES8IA8  IS  THE  SON  OF  ABRAHAM.        221 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    MESSIAS  IS    THE    SON    OF    ABRAHAM,    ISAAC,    AND 

JACOB. 

Gen.  xii.  1-9  ;  xvii.  1-9  ;  xviii.  17-19  ;  xxii.  16-18  ;  xxvi.  1-5  ;  xxviii. 

10-15. 

Introduction. 

1.  Time  and  Place  of  the  Prophecies.— 1.  With  his 
father  Tliare,  his  wife  JSarai,  and  his  iiopliew  Lot,  Abram  left 
Ur  of  the  Chaldees  for  Ilaran,  in  obedience  to  a  call  of  God 
(Acts  vii.  2-4).  Thare  himself  was  the  son  of  Nachor,  son 
of  Sarug,  son  of  Reu,  son  of  Phaleg,  son  of  Heber,  son  of 
Sale,  son  of  Kainan  (LXX.),  son  of  Arphaxad,  son  of  Sem. 
It  appears,  therefore,  that  Abraham  belonged  to  the  family 
to  which  Noe  had  promised  the  mediatorship  of  the  Messi- 
anic blessing. 

We  must  briefly  state  the  different  opinions  existing  con- 
cerning the  Ur  of  the  Chaldees.  a.  According  to  a  Tal- 
mndic  tradition  Abraham  had  been  thrown  by  his  idola- 
trous countrymen  into  a  burning  furnace  because  he  had 
not  been  willing  to  conform  with  their  idolatrous  prac- 
tices. God  delivered  the  patriarch  from  this  fire  of  the 
Chaldees  (Ur  of  the  Chaldees),  and  the  Mosaic  record 
narrates  in  the  present  passage  this  miraculous  delivery. 
In  confirmation  of  this  opinion  11.  Esdr.  ix.  7  (Vulg.)  may 
be  cited,  Avhere  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  "  is  translated  by  "  fire 
of  the  Chaldees"  (cf.  Gen.  xi.  28,  31;  xv.  7;  Acts  vii.  2; 
Jud.  V.  6-9).     This  explanation  does  not  appear  probable. 

b.  Another  opinion  considers  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  as 
identical  with  the  land  of  the  Chaldees  (LXX.,  Ewald, 
Stanley),  or  as  meaning  a  mountain  of  the  Chaldees  (Kuo- 


222  OlSNEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 

bel).     But  unless  tliese  autlioritios  bring  better  reasons  for 
their  view,  it  does  not  appear  tenable. 

c.  An  old  tradition  identifies  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  with 
Orfah  or  Edessa.  This  tradition  seems  to  reach  back  to 
the  date  of  Ei)hreni  (330-370).  The  ancient  name  of 
Edessa  ajipcars  to  have  been  Orrha  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Isidore  (c.  B.C.  150).  Pocock  (Description  of  the  East, 
vol.  i.  }).  159)  gives  this  tradition  as  the  common  opin- 
ion among  the  JeAvs,  and  even  at  present  the  principal 
mosque  of  the  city  is  the  "  Mosque  of  Abraham,"  as  the 
pond  in  which  the  sacred  fish  is  kept  bears  the  name  "  Lake 
of  Abraham  the  Beloved  "  (Ainsworth,  "  Travels  in  the 
Track,"  etc.,  p.  04).  Again,  "Ur  of  the  Chaldees"  may  be 
rejidercd  "  light  of  the  Chaldees,"  a  title  tliat  would  be  given 
in  the  East  on  account  of  any  remarkable  feature  of  natu- 
ral Ijeauty,  as  Damascus  is  called  "  the  eye  of  tlie  East." 

d.  Another  tradition  appears  in  the  'I'almud  and  in 
some  of  the  early  Arabian  writers,  which  finds  Ur  in  AVarka, 
the  'Opx^V  of  the  Greeks  and  probably  the  Erech  of  Sacred 
Scripture,  called  Opex  in  the  LXX.  version.  This  place 
bears  the  name  lluruk  in  the  native  inscriptions,  and  was 
known  to  the  Jews  as  the  "land  of  the  Chaldees."  Ewald 
and  Stanley  may  be  understood  as  holding  this  opinion. 

e.  Another  opinion,  again,  Avhich  is  not  supported  by  any 
tradition,  identifies  the  "Ur  of  the  Chaklecs"  with  a 
castle  existing  in  Eastern  Mesopotamia,  l)ctween  Hatraand 
Nisibis,  which  is  mentioned  by  Ammianus  Marcellinus 
(xxv.  8,  col.  26).  The  chief  arguments  in  favor  of  this 
opinion  are  the  identity  of  the  castle's  name  Avith  "  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees,"  and  its  position  between  Arraiiacliitis.  the 
sujiposed  home  of  Abraham's  ancestors,  and  llaran,  wbilher 
be  went  from  Ur. 

f.  Finally,  tliere  is  another  obscure  tradition  whicli 
jdaces  the  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldees"  south  of  Babylon,  thougli 
it  distinguishes  tlie  place  from  "Warka  (Journal  of  Asiatic 
Society,  vol.  xii.  p.  481,  note  2).  This  tradition  may  be 
traced  in  p]ui)olenuis  {r.  i?.c.   150)  as  quoted  by  Eusebius 


THE  MES8IA8  IS  TUE  SON  OF  ABRAHAM.        223 

(PrtejD.  Ev.  ix.  IT),  wlio  identifies  Ur  with  a  Bubylonian 
city  known  as  Camarina.  Now  Caniarina  is  the  city  of 
the  moon,  Kamar  signifying  "moon  "  in  Arabic,  and  Khaldi 
bearing  the  same  meaning  in  Old  Armenian.  Tlie  Baby- 
lonian city  of  .  the  moon  was  Hur,  as  appears  from  the 
brick-inscriptions  found  on  the  ruins  of  Umgheir  or  Mug- 
heir,  situated  on  the  ancient  site  of  liur,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Euphrates.  The  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  therefore 
is  identical  with  the  Babylonian  Ilur,  the  Camarina  of 
Eupolemus,  and  the  present  Mugheir  or  Umgheir.  But 
there  are  other  reasons  besides  this  identity  of  name  and 
of  worshi])  that  point  to  Mugheir  as  the  Ur  of  the  Chaldees. 
The  iuscrij)tions  distinguish  between  "  mat  Assur"  (Assyria), 
"mat  Aram"  (northern  and  western  Arama?a),  "mat  Chat- 
ti"  (the  region  of  the  Hittites),  "mat  Acharri"'  (the  land 
of  the  Chanaanites),  "mat  Babilu"  (Babylonia),  and  "mat 
Kaldu"  (land  of  the  Chaldees).  Now  this  last  country  is 
generally  placed  south  of  Babylon,  as  all  grant.  Hence 
"  Ur  of  the  Chaldees "  cannot  be  identified  with  Edessa 
or  the  above-mentioned  castle  (cf.  Schrader,  K.  A.  T.,  2d  ed. 
1883,  pp.  139  ff.).  It  follows  from  the  existence  of  the 
great  temple  of  the  moon  in  Umgheir  (cf.  Jos.  xxiv.  2), 
from  its  early  social  and  political  importance,  and  from  the 
name  Hur,  which  is,  letter  for  letter,  the  Hebrew  ^1J<,  that 
Mugheir,  and  ]iot  Warka,  Avas  the  dwelling  place  of  Abra- 
ham's ancestors.  Finnlly,  it  seems  entirely  improbable 
that  Warka,  which  is  known  in  Genesis  as  Erech,  should  in 
the  passages  referring  to  the  patriarch  be  named  Ur.  The 
exception  that  on  our  supposition  Abraham  would  have 
had  to  cross  the  Euphrates  twice  in  his  migration  is  of 
little  importance,  because  the  patriarch,  being  a  herdsman, 
naturally  followed  the  path  in  which  he  found  good  pas- 
ture for  his  flocks. 

2.  Haran,  j^robably  the  elder  brother  of  Abram,  was  al- 
ready dead  at  the  time  of  the  patriarch's  leaving  Ur ;  Nachor 
remained  behind.  Hence,  when  Thare,  too,  had  died  in 
Haran,  Abram  became  the  head  of  the  family,  and  now  re- 


224  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

ceived  liis  second  call.  Obedient  to  liis  call,  he  cros.sed  the 
Euj[)hrates  near  Zeugma  (some  writers  consider  this  call  of 
Abnim  identical  with  that  given  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees, 
translating  the  verb  in  the  beginning  of  ch.  xii.,  "and  the 
Lord  had  said  to  Abram  ")  and  entered  the  land  of  Cha- 
naan  by  the  valley  of  the  Jabbok;  he  crossed  at  once  into 
the  rich  valley  of  Moreh,  near  Sichem,  where  he  received 
a  distinct  promise  of  his  future  inheritance  (Gen.  xii.  7) 
and  built  his  first  altar  to  God.  Owing,  as  it  appears,  to 
the  presence  of  the  Chanaanite  in  the  land,  Abram  made 
his  resting-place  in  the  strong  mountain  country  between 
Ik'thel  and  Ilai.  AVhen  there  Avas  a  famine  in  the  coun- 
try, he  went  down  to  Egypt,  where  his  wealth  increased 
considerably,  so  much  so  that,  after  his  return,  he  and  Lot 
liad  to  separate.  Abram  was  now  enabled  to  take  uj)  his 
dwelling-})lace  in  the  more  convenient  Mambre  or  Hebron. 
Jt  was  from  this  city  that  the  })atriarch  went  forth  against 
Chodorlahomor  and  his  companion-kings  (Schrader,  K.  A. 
T.,  2d  ed.  1883,  pp.  135  ff.),  after  they  had  captured  his 
nei)hew  together  with  the  substance  of  the  cities  of  the 
Plain.  After  this  occurrence  Melchisedech  made  his  ap- 
pearance before  Abram. 

3.  It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  look  upon  the  divine 
promise  which  followed  the  events  just  related  as  beginning 
a  new  period  in  the  patriarch's  life.  God  appeared  to 
Abram  (c.  xv.),  promising  him  a  son  to  be  his  heir.  But 
the  long  Israelite  captivity  in  Egypt  is  also  predicted,  and 
the  temporal  promise  regarding  the  land  of  Chanaan  is  re- 
peated. In  consequence  of  this,  Abram  takes  Agar  as  con- 
cubine, and  begets  Ismael. 

4.  The  voice  of  God  is  now  silent  for  fourteen  years, 
during  which  period  the  patriarch  seems  to  have  remained 
at  ^lambre.  At  the  end  of  this  time  God  again  ap})eared 
and  made  a  solemn  and  everlasting  covenant  with  Abram, 
whose  name  he  now  changes  to  Abraham.  The  numerous 
posterity  which  has  been  repeatedly  promised  is  again  for- 
told  in  c.  xvii.,  but  in  c.  xviii.  a  son  is  distinctly  promised 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  ABRAHAM.        225 

to  Sarai,  whose  name  had  been  previously  changed  to  Sara. 
The  patriarch  pleads  for  the  cities  of  the  Plain,  hut  their 
wickedness  had  reached  its  full  measure;  the  towns  are 
destroyed,  only  Lot  with  his  family  being  saved.  The 
promised  son  is  born  at  last,  but  only  after  Abraham  had 
moved  toAvards  the  south  country,  into  the  territory  of  the 
Philistines.     Agar  with  Ismael  is  now  sent  away. 

5.  Twenty-five  years  (Jos.  Antiq.  I.  xiii.  2)  pass  in  peace 
and  quiet,  when  God  again  appears  to  the  patriarch,  in 
order  to  subject  him  to  tlie  greatest  trial  of  his  life.  Isaac 
is  to  be  sacrificed,  and  in  spite  of  all  his  natural  repug- 
nance, the  holy  patriarch  obeys  the  voice  of  God  (c.  xxii.). 
New  promises  more  emphatic  and  comprehensive  than  the 
previous  ones  follow,  aiul  Abraham  returns  to  Bersabee, 
his  dwelling-place  in  the  south  country.  Ho  must  have 
returned  from  here  to  Hebi-on,  because  Sara  died  at  Kir- 
jath-Arbe,  i.e.,  Hebron,  where  she  was  buried  in  the  sepul- 
chral cave  of  Machpelah.  Isaac  is  then  married  to  Rebecca, 
and  Abraham  himself  marries  Cetura,  whose  children  were, 
however,  sent  away,  as  Ismael  had  been  banished.  Finally, 
Abraham  died  at  the  age  of  175  years,  and  was  buried  in 
the  cave  of  Machpelah. 

6.  Eebecca,  who  had  at  first  been  barren,  now  gave  birth 
to  twins,  Esau  and  Jacob.  The  manner  in  which  Esau 
sold  his  primogeniture  to  Jacob  is  too  Avell  known  to  need 
further  description.  A  famine  soon  forced  Isaac  to  go,  like 
his  father,  to  Gerara;  God  warned  him  not  to  proceed 
into  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  renewed  at  the  same  time  the 
Messianic  blessing  which  he  had  repeatedly  imparted  to 
Abraham  (xxvi.  2  fl.).  Finally,  Jacob  obtained  his  father's 
blessing  fraudulently. 

7.  Esau's  wrath  is  stirred  up  on  account  of  Jacob's 
fraud;  he  is  determined  to  kill  his  brother  after  their 
father's  death.  Rebecca,  therefore,  sends  Jacob  with 
Isaac's  consent  to  Haran,  in  order  to  marry  a  wife  of  his 
own  race.     On  the  way  thither  God  appears  to  him  in  his 


226  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 

vision  of  tlic  mysterious  ladder  at  Bethel,  and  repeats  the 
patriarehal  Messianic  jjroinises  (Clen.  xxviii.  14). 

2.  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecies.— 1.  Sacred 
Scripture  sujjposes  this  in  many  passages:  (!en.  xlix.  10; 
Ps.  ii.  8;  xxi.  (xxii.)  27-;]l ;  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.)  H-11,  17,  19; 
xcv.  (xcvi.)  3,  7-10;  xcvii.  (xcviii.)  'Z,  3;  Is.  ii.  2-4;  ix. 
1-G;  xi.  10;  xlii.  1,  G,  7;  xlix.  G;  Joel  iii.  1,  2;  Jer.  iii.  17; 
Agg.  ii.  7;  Mai.  i.  11;  Zach.  xiv.  lG-19;  Gal.  iii.  14;  Acts 
iii.  25,  2G;  xiii.  32;  Luke  i.  55,  73;  Kom.  iv.  IG,  18;  Jo. 
iv.  22. 

2.  The  Fatliers  of  the  Church  are  unanimous  in  explain- 
ing the  patriarchal  promises  as  referring  to  the  Messias 
(cf.  Keinke). 

3.  The  fullilment  of  the  prophecy  warrants  us  in  taking 
the  promises  as  referring  to  Christ. 

4.  "^i'lie  ancient  Synagogue  too  explained  tlie  ])atriarchal 
proTuises  as  referring  to  the  Messias.  We  have  testimony 
of  this  in  Ecclus.  xliv.  22  (Vulg.  24,25);  Onkelos  too  bears 
witness  for  us,  since  he  translates  the  Divine  promise: 
"they  shall  be  blessed  on  account  of  thee  and  of  thy  sons." 
Ps.  Jonathan:  "They  shall  be  blessed  through  thy  merit 
and  the  merit  of  thy  sons."  In  Bemid.  K.  (sect.  2,  fol. 
184,  4)  there  is  a  rather  curious  explanation  of  Gen.  xxii. 
18:  "God  compares  the  Israelites  to  the  dust.  But  what 
are  its  qualities?  If  there  were  no  dust,  nnm  could  not 
exist;  there  would  be  neither  trees  nor  fruits.  In  the 
same  manner,  if  there  were  no  Israelites,  the  world  could 
not  exist,  as  is  written  in  Gen.  xxii.  18:  And  in  thy  seed 
shall  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  be  blessed.  In  this  world 
(i.e.,  in  the  O.T.)  (Jod  compares  them  to  the  dust;  but  at 
the  time  of  the  Messias  they  will  be  like  the  sand  on  the 
sea-shore.  AVhat  is  the  quality  of  the  sand  ?  It  dulls  the 
teeth.  Thus  will  the  Israelites  at  the  time  of  the  ^lessias 
grind  \\\>  all  the  Gentiles,  as  it  is  written  (Num.  xxiv.  lit): 
Out  of  Jacob  shall  lie  come  that  shall  rule.  And  again 
Ezechiel  says:  And  I  will  lay  my  vengeance  upon  Edom  by 
the  hand  of  my  peo])le  Israel.     Another  reason  why  the  Is- 


THE  ME 881  AS  IS  THE  SON  OF  ABRAHAM.        227 

raelites  are  compared  to  the  sand  is  this :  If  one  throws  a 
handful  of  sand  into  the  dough  or  the  food,  no  one  can  eat 
of  it,  because  lie  would  dull  his  teeth:  thus  it  is  with  the 
Israelites.  Whoever  plunders  or  robs  them  dulls  his  teeth 
for  the  future  world,  as  is  written  in  Is.  xxiv.  23.  And  the 
moon  shall  blush,  and  the  sun  shall  be  ashamed,  when  the 
Lord  of  hosts  shall  reign  in  Mount  Sion,  and  in  Jerusalem, 
and  shall  be  glorified  in  the  sight  of  his  ancients." 

Gen.  XII.  1-9. 

And  the '  Lord  s;iid  to  Abram  :  "  Go  forth  out  of  thy  coun- 
try,  and  from  thy  kindred,  and  out  of  thy  father's  house,  and 
come  into  the  land  which  I  shall  show  thee.  And  I  will  make  of 
thee  a  great  nation,  and  I  will  bless  thee,  and  magnify  thy  name, 
and  thou  shalt  be  blessed.  And  I  will  bless  them  that  bless  thee, 
and  curse  them  that  curse  thee,  and  in  thee  shall  all  the  ^  kindreds 
of  the  earth  be  blessed." 

'  The  Lord  said  to  Abraham.  If  we  summarize  the  various  prom- 
ises made  to  the  ])atriarcbs,  we  find  that  Uod  grants  them  five  dis- 
tinct blessings:  1.  They  shall  have  a  numerous  posterity;  2.  they 
will  always  enjoy  tjod's  special  protection  ;  3.  they  are  to  possess 
the  land  of  Chanaan  for  a  long  time;  4.  they  will  be  victorious  over 
all  their  enemies  ;  5.  tlirougb  them  and  through  their  seed  blessing 
shall  come  to  all  the  triljes  of  the  earth.  It  is  plain  that  the  fifth 
promise  is  the  one  that  concerns  us  above  all ;  the  first  four  will  be 
explained  in  so  far  only  as  they  shed  light  on  the  last. 

In  the  fifth  blessing  there  are  again  four  special  points  that  need 
explanation  :  1.  The  subject  of  the  blessing  must  be  determined;  2. 
the  precise  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  phrase  "  shall  be  blessed  "  must 
be  investigated;  3.  the  instrument  through  which  the  blessing  is  to 
descend  on  the  nations  of  tlie  earth  must  be  described;  4.  the  blessing 
itself,  its  nature  and  i)uri)ose,  nuist  be  accui-ately  defined. 

'•'  All  the  kindreds  of  the  earth.  1.  The  extent  of  the  blessing 
promised  to  Abraiiam  aiul  his  seed  is  limited  by  some  authors  to  the 
iiilial)itants  of  (."hanaau.  Bertholdt  (De  ortu  theologiae  veter.)  follows 
tilt!  view  of  Amnion  (Christologie),  and  upholds  the  limited  extent  of 
(iod's  blessing  jiromised  to  the  patriarchs  :  "  Abrahamo,  Isaaco  et  Ja- 
cobo  facta  erat  a  deo  spes,  fore  ut  reliquae  gentes  terrce  Canaanis  (Ha- 
adaiiiair  ha-arez'  goyey'  mishpechoth)  posterorum  suorum  potestati  se 
subiicerent  atque  sic  honores  et  beneficia  populis  foedere  cum  aliis 
iunctis  ex  viilgari  consuetiuline  concessa  in  se  conferrent."  Baumgar- 
ten-Criisius  (Bibliotli.  theolog.  ]>.  3G8)  modifies  the  aljove  opinion  ;  he 
siii)poses  that  the  descendants  of  Abraham  will  possess  the  whole 
earth,  and  that  its  inhabitants  will  be  blessed  by  them,  because  they 
will  be  subject  to  their  rule. 


228  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

So  Al)ram  went  out  as  the  Lord  had  conuuanded  him,  and  Lot 
went  with  him  :  Abram  was  seventy-five  years  old  when  he  went 
forth  from  Haran.  And  he  took  Sarai  his  wife,  and  Lot  his 
brother's  son,  and  all  the  substance  which  they  had  gathered,  and 
the  souls  which  they  had  gotten  in  Haran,  and  they  went  out  to 
go  into  the  land  of  Chanaan.  And  when  they  were  come  into  it, 
Abram  passed  through  the  country  unto  the  place  of  Sichem,  as 
far  as  the  noble  vale  :  now  the  Chanaanite  was  at  that  time  in 
the  hind.  And  the  Lord  appeared  to  Abram,  and  said  to  him  : 
"To  thy  seed  will  I  give  this  land."  And  he  built  there  an  altar 
to  the  Lord,  who  had  appeared  to  him.  And  passing  on  from 
thence  to  a  mountain,  that  was  on  the  east-side  of  Bethel,  ho 
there  pitched  his  tent,  having  Bethel  on  the  west  and  Ilai  on  the 
east :  he  built  there  also  an  altar  to  the  Lord,  and  called  upon  his 
name.  And  Abram  went  forward  going,  and  proceeding  on  to 
the  south. 

Gen.  xyii.  1-9. 

And  after  he  began  to  be  ninety  and  nine  years  old,  the  Lord 
appeared  to  him,  and  he  said  unto  him:  "  I  am  the  Almighty  God  ; 

a.  Deferring  the  answer  to  this  opinion  till  we  come  to  consider 
the  nature  of  Abraham's  blessing,  \ve  must  here  state  that  the  re- 
striction of  Krets  ami  Adamah  to  tlie  laud  of  Chanaan,  and  of  Goyim 
and  Mishpechoth  to  the  ("hanaanites  is  entirely  arbitrary,  since  no  one 
of  tlic  paralli'l  texts  requires  such  a  limitation;  on  the  contrary,  they 
tend  to  show  that  tiiose  comprehensive  exjircssions  must  he  received 
in  their  unrestricted  signification,  h.  lk'si(U'S,  the  Jewish  tradition 
favors  tlie  unlimited  meaning  of  the  words  in  (piestion,  as  is  seen 
from  all  those  passages  in  Scripture  where  the  extension  of  the  Mes- 
sianic salvation  is  announced  to  all  the  heathen  nations.  Bertholdt 
confesses  that  at  the  time  of  David  and  t^olomon  such  an  unlimited 
interi)retation  was  the  commonly  received  one,  but  he  si-eks  to  evade 
the  evident  inferi'uce  by  contendiuir  that  such  an  interpretation  ]iro- 
ceeded  from  an  ignorance  ot  "historical  hermeneutics."  c.  Finally, 
it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  (iod  coulil  liave  promised  temporal  blessing 
to  all  the  ("hanaanites  through  Ahraliam,  since  in  (ien.  xv.  1^  it  is  ex- 
pressly i)romised  that  the  descendants  of  Abraham  are  to  ])o.ssess  the 
wlioieoC  Palestine  and  to  have  dominion  over  all  its  tribes.  Even  the 
sentence  (»f  extermination  is  )>lainiy  alluded  to  in  the  words  that  the 
iniipiity  of  tiie  Amorrhites  is  not  yet  full  (xv.  10).  For  the  Amorrhites 
undoubtedly  stand  as  a  part  for  the  wiioie.  U C  nnist  therefore  con- 
cimle  tiiat  it  .Moses  luid  intended  to  represent  only  tlie  ( 'lianaiiiiites  as 
the  sulijects  dl'  the  iimmised  hlessinjr,  he  would  have  indicateii  such 
a  bmited  meaning  ol  Krets  as  he  always  does  when  the  limitation  is 
not  altogether  clear  from  the  context. 


THE  MimSTAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  ABRAHAM.        229 

walk  before  me  and  be  jierfect.  And  I  will  make  my  covenant 
between  me  and  thee,  and  I  will  multiply  thee  exceedingly." 
Abram  fell  flat  on  his  face.  And  God  said  to  him  :  "  I  am,  and 
my  covenant  is  with  thee,  and  thou  slialt  be  a  father  of  many 
nations.  Neither  shall  tliy  name  be  called  any  more  Abram,  but 
thou  shalt  be  called  Abraham,  because  I  have  made  thee  a  father 
of  many  nations.  And  I  will  make  thee  increase  exceedingly, 
and  I  will  make  nations  of  thee,  and  kings  shall  come  out  of  thee. 
And  I  will  establish  my  covenant  between  me  and  thee,  and 
between  thy  seed  after  thee  in  their  generation,  by  a  perpetual 
covenant,  to  be  a  God  to  thee  and  to  thy  seed  after  thee.  And  I 
will  give  to  thee  and  to  thy  seed  the  land  of  thy  sojournment,  all 
the  land  of  Chanaau  for  a  perpetual  possession,  and  I  will  be  their 
God." 

Gen.  XVIII.  17-19, 

And  the  Lord  said,  "Can  I  hide  from  Abraham  what  I  am 
about  to  do,  seeing  he  shall  become  a  great  and  mighty  nation, 
and  in  him  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  ^  shall  be  blessed  ?     For  I 

*  Shall  be  blessed.  2.  The  second  point  that  needs  investigation  is 
the  precise  meaning  of  the  phrase  "shall  be  blessed."  All  the  diffi- 
culty arises  from  the  fact  that  in  the  Hebrew  text  the  Niphal  form, 
"nibrekhu"  is  used  in  Gen.  xii.  3;  xviii.  18  ;  xxviii.  14,  while  the 
Hitbpael  form  is  employed  in  the  other  two  parallel  passages  (Uen. 
xxii.  18  and  xxvi.  4).  lience  the  question  :  must  the  phrase  be  trans- 
lated as  if  the  verb  were  passive,  which  is  the  ordinary  meaning  of 
the  Niphal,  or  must  we  translate  it  as  a  reflexive,  which  is  the  ordi- 
nary meaning  of  the  Ilithpael?  Authors  who  have  considered  this 
(piestion  give  as  many  different  answers  as  can  be  reasonably  sup- 
ported. 

A.  The  iirst  class  of  commentators  contends  that  the  Hithpael  in 
the  two  parallel  passages  has  a  passive  not  a  reflexive  meaning. 
This  interpretation  is  defended  by  such  authorities  as  Patrizi,  Jahn, 
Bade,  de  Wette,  von  Bohlen,  Lamy.  The  last-named  writer  gives 
the  following  reasons  for  his  opinion  :  <(.  Hithpael  is  always  a  passive 
form  in  Syriac.  h.  Hithbarekhu  is  translated  as  a  passive  in  Is.  Ixv. 
IG  and  Ps.  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.)  17.  c.  The  Septuagint,  the  Vulgate,  the 
Syriac  version,  the  paraphrase  of  Onkelos,  translate  "  Hithbarekhu  " 
of  the  two  passages  here  in  question  as  a  passive. 

Still,  it  must  be  noted  that  the  Hithpael  of  the  verb  "  barakh  " 
occurs  only  six  times  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament  :  in 
the  two  passages  above  mentioned,  in  the  two  passages  cited  by 
Lamy,  in  Deut.  xxix.  18,  and  in  Jer.  iv.  2.  The  last  passage  reads 
according  to  the  Hebrew  text :  "The  nations  shall  bless  themselves 
in  him,  and  in  him  shall  they  glory."  The  reflexive  meaning  seems 
to   be   required   in  the   context.     As  to   Deut.   xxix.   18   (Vulg.   19), 


230  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

know  that  lie  will  foniniand  Iiis  cliildren  ami  his  houselinld  after 
him  to  keep  the  way  of  the  Lord,  and  do  judgment  and  justice, 

the  reflexive  meaning  is  still  more  clearly  required :  "  And  it 
caiiu^  to  pass,  when  he  heareth  the  words  of  this  oath,  that  he 
hk'ss  hiinst'lf  in  his  heart,  sayinfr,  I  shall  have  jjeace,  though  1  walk 
ill  the  stubhornncss  of  my  heart."  The  passive  meaning  is  here 
evidently  excluded  by  the  context.  The  passage  from  Is.  Ixv.  16, 
which  Lamy  translates  as  having  the  verb  in  the  passive  voice,  is 
ecjually  well  rendered  with  the  verb  in  the  reflexive  sense,  the  ordi 
nary  signitication  of  lliHipael  :  "  So  that  he  who  blesseth  himself  in 
the  earth  shall  bless  himself  in  the  Uotl  of  truth  "  Unless  weighty 
rea.sons  can  be  advanced  for  understanding  the  Hithpael  in  the  pas- 
sive sense  in  this  ])assage,  its  ordinary  signification  should  not  be 
abandoned.  The  verse  cited  by  Laniy  frcmi  P.s.  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.)  17 
seems  at  first  to  require  an  active  rather  than  a  reflexive  verb.  But 
the  active  meaning  of  the  verb  "  Yithbarekhu"  is  excluded  by  the 
preposition  which  follows  it.  Hence  the  reflexive  signification  of  the 
verb,  "men  shall  bless  themselves  in  him,"  is  at  least  as  i)roper  as 
the  passive,  "  men  shall  be  blessed  in  him."  Keeping  in  mind  then 
this  result  of  our  investigation  concerning  the  Hithpael  of  "  barakh," 
it  is  antecedently  jjrobable  that  the  two  passages  in  the  present 
prophecy  have  a  reflexive  rather  than  a  passive  meaning.  Indeed, 
the  passive  meaning  of  the  Hithpael  in  question  seems  to  be  a  mere 
Aranuiic  idiom. 

B.  Another  class  of  commentators  has  therefore  thought  fit  to 
translate  not  <mly  the  Hithpael  of  "  barakh  "  in  the  two  prophetic 
])assages  as  reflexive,  but  also  the  Niphal  in  their  three  parallel 
verbs,  'i'his  interi)retation  is  found  in  the  works  of  writers  like 
Delit/.sch,  Gesenius,  De  Wette  (latterly),  Ewald,  Knobel,  Dillmann, 
and  others  of  no  .small  authority.  Their  rea.sons  are  especially 
the  following  two:  a.  The  Hithjjael  of  "barakh"  has  a  reflexive 
meaning  in  the  passages  ])arallel  to  our  prophecy.  But  the  parallel- 
ism is  so  minute  that  the  voice  of  the  verb  cannot  be  changed.  Hence 
the  Niphal  in  our  three  ])rophetic  ])as.sages  must  have  its  primitive 
reflexive  meaning,  h.  Again,  there  is  another  form  of  the  verb 
"  barakh,"  which  has  certainly  the  i)assive  sense  ;  for  its  Pual  occurs 
in  this  signification  in  Num.  xxii.  (J  and  Ps.  xxxvi.  (xxxvii.)  22. 
Hence  we  nuist  suppose  that  the  Niphal  of  "barakh"  retains  its 
original  reflexive  meaning.  The  argunu'nt  for  the  ])assive  meaning 
taken  from  the  LXX.  is  said  to  prove  nothing,  and  in  conlinnation  of 
this  we  are  directed  to  Kcclus.  xliv.  21. 

But  if  we  weigh  the  arguments  brought  for  the  reflexive  meaning 
of  the  Niphal  we  must  confess  that  they  are  not  conclusive.  <i.  The 
second  one,  for  instance,  nuiy  be  easily  retorted  in  this  way  :  'I'he  re- 
flexive meaning  of  the  verb  "  i)arakh"  is  expressed  by  the  Hithpael, 
as  all  the  six  passages  prove  which  have  been  (|Uoted  in  the  preced- 
ing paragraj)!!.  Hence,  tin;  Nijjhal  of  the  verb  which  occurs  in  our 
])rophe(y  mu.st  have  its  ordinary  i)a.ssive  njeaning.  h.  Again,  as  to 
the  i)aralleiism,  it  is  generally  acknowledged  that  parallel  members 
do  not  necessarily  express  their  similar  ideas  in  precisely  the  same 
maniu'r.  Hence,  this  alone  cannot  be  advanceil  as  an  argument  for 
the  reflexive  rather  than  the  passive  meaning  of  a  verb. 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SO:^-  OF  ABRAHAM.        231 

that  for  Abraham's  sake  tlie  Lord  may   bring  to  effect  all  the 
things  he  hath  spoken  unto  him." 

Gen.  XXII.  16-18. 

By  my  own  self  have  I  sworn,  saith  the  Lord,  because  thou 
hast  done  this  thing,  and  hast  not  spared  thy  only-begotten  son 
for  my  sake  :  I  will  bless  thee,  and  I  will  multiply  thy  seed  as  the 
stars  of  heaven,  and  as  the  sand  that  is  by  the  sea-shore,  thy  seed 
shall  possess  the  gates  of  their  enemies,  and  in  thy  seed  shall  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth  be  blessed,  because  thou  hast  obeyed  my 
voice. 

Gen.  XXVI.  1-5. 

And  when  a  famine  came  in  the  land,  after  that  barrenness 
which  had  liappened  in  the  days  of  Abraham,  Isaac  went  to 
Abimclech,  king  of  the  Palestines,  to  Gerara.  And  the  Lord  ap- 
peared to  him,  and  said:  "  Go  not  down  into  Egypt,  but  stay  in  the 
land  that  I  shall  tell  thee,  and  sojourn  in  it,  and  I  will  be  with 
thee,  and  will  bless  thee,  for  to  thee  and  to  thy  seed  I  will  give  all 
these  countries,  to  fulfil  the  oath  which  I  swore  to  Abraham  thy 
father.  And  I  will  multiply  thy  seed  like  the  stars  of  heaven, 
and  I  will  give  to  thy  posterity  all  these  countries,  and  in  thy  * 

C.  The  advocates  of  a  third  interprotation  contend  that  the  Niphal 
of  "  barakh  "  should  he  taken  in  its  ordinary  passive  meaning,  and 
the  Hithpael  of  the  same  verb  in  its  retiexive  signification.  The 
commentators  who  adhere  to  this  opinion  are  Ilengstenberg,  Keinke, 
Corluy,  Kimchi,  Aben  Ezra,  and  others,  a.  The  reasons  given  by 
these  authors  are  for  the  most  part  those  which  are  advanced  by  the 
commentators  who  hold  either  of  the  two  preceding  opinions,  h. 
Besides,  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  Niphal  and  the  Hithpael  forms 
is  kejjt  intact,  so  that  no  further  explanation  for  either  acceptation  is 
needed. 

*  In  thee — In  him — In  thy  seed.  .3.  In  the  third  place  the  instru- 
ment through  which  the  blessing  is  to  come  to  the  human  race  must 
be  determined.  The  words  of  Scripture  describe  the  instrument  In' 
the  words  "in  thee"  (xii.  3),  "in  him  "  (xviii.  18),  "in  thy  seed" 
(xxii.  17),  "in  thy  seed  "  (xxvi.  4),  "in  thee  and  tliy  seed"  (xxviii. 
14).  But  before  we  speak  of  the  real  meaning  of  these  phrases,  we 
must  reject  two  interpretations  of  them  which  do  not  express  the  full 
sense  of  the  promise. 

a.  Eckermann  (Theolog.  Beitr.  ii.  3,  p.  40),  Le  Clerc,  Jarchi,  and 
other  Jewisli  commentators  translate  the  Hebrew  preposition  by 
"  as  "instead  of  "  in."  Le  Clerc  explains  the  interpretation  thus:  The 
blessings  of  inost  oriental  people  will  be  contained  in  the  following 
words:  "May  God  bless  thee  as  he  has  blessed  Abraham."     Hence 


m 


OENEALOOT  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 


sood  sliall  all  the  nations  of  tlio  earth  be  blessed,  because  Abra- 
ham obeyed  my  voice,  and  kept  my  precepts  and  commandments, 
and  observed  my  ceremonies  and  laws." 

the  whole  passage  now  uiuler  consideration  ought  to  he  translated : 
"  All  the  nations  of  the  earth  will  greet  or  bless  each  other  :  Prosper 
as  Abraham."  The  fault  of  this  interpretation  is  evident  even  from 
the  fact  that  the  liithpael  of  "  harakh  "  does  not  mean  "  to  wish  one 
another  jjrosperity,"  but  "  to  regard  one's  self  as  i)lessed  or  happy, 
to  promise  one's  self  ])r()sperity." 

h.  Another  interpretation  of  the  passage  which  also  supposes  that 
the  preposition  must  be  rendered  by  "  as  "  instead  of  "  in  "  is  given 
by  St.  C"hryso.stom,  Theophylactus,  (Ecumenius,  St.  Augustine.  They 
translate  :  "  All  the  nations  shall  be  blessed  as  thou  art  bles.sed."  It 
is  tru(!  that  the  Hebrew  prejjosition  used  in  this  passage  is  rendered 
in  the  sense  of  "as"  in  Ps.  xliv.  4  ;  xxxvii.  20  ;  cxii.  4  ;  Os.  x.  15  ; 
l)ut  this  meaning  of  the  prejiosition  has  seemed  so  unnatural  to  the 
Massoretic  writers  that  they  have  ado])ted  a  dilTerent  reading  in 
three  of  the  passages  cited.  Besides,  the  Messianic  sense  of  the  jias- 
sage  in  (juestion  is  destroyed  by  such  a  rendering,  while  it  agrees 
most  beautifully  with  the  common  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  ])repoHi- 
tion. 

r.  Others  again  sin  by  excess,  because  they  take  the  llel>re\v  prej)- 
osition  "2.  as  signifying  "through,"  "on  account  of,"  "through  the 
merits  of."  It  is  safer  to  regard  the  ]>rei)osition  as  indicating  instru- 
mentality in  general,  without  determining  the  nature  of  the  mediator- 
ship.  Or,  if  a  definite  way  must  be  determined,  "  in  thee  "  according 
to  Scripture  language  means  "  in  as  far  as  thou  re])resentest  thy 
offspring  "  (cf.  (len.  ix.  1  ;  xii.  2  ;  xvii.  2  ;  xviii.  18  ;  xxvi.  3). 

d.  The  clause  "  in  thy  seed,"  contained  in  the  promise  given  to  the 
patriarchs,  is  explained  in  different  ways  :  1.  The  seed  is  Christ 
alone  (Hade,  etc.)  Heasons  :  a.  Ps.  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.)  17  ;  Luke  i.  73,  72  ; 
Jo.  viii.  50;  Acts  iii.  24-2(5;  iv.  11;  (ial.  iii.  6-i),  14-16;  fi.  The 
translation  of  the  C'haldee  i)araphrase  thus  Hunts  the  meaning  of 
seed;  y.  The  Jews  have  excluded  themselves  from  the  partici])atiou 
in  the  Messianic  blessing,  and  can  therefore  be  in  no  way  said  to 
have  l)een  instrumental  in  procuring  the  same  to  others.  2.  Other 
authors  are  of  opinion  tliat  the  patriarchal  seed  in  which  all  nations 
will  be  blessed  includes  Christ  and  all  the  faithful  Israelites  (Corluy, 
llengst  ,  Heiidvc).  The  other  descendants  of  the  patriarchs  are  ex- 
cluded by  Kom.  iv.  12  (cf.  d'al.  iii.  7  ;  Hom.  ix.  G-IO).  Reasons  :  a. 
In  (len.  xxii.  17  the  seed  must  certainly  be  taken  collectively  ;  there- 
fore akso  in  the  following  verse  (cf.  (Jen.  xxvi.  4  and  xxviii.  14.  (i. 
Jo.  iv.  22,  salvation  is  said  to  come  from  the  Jews  ;  y.  Horn.  xi.  17, 
18,  24,  considers  the  wild  olive  branches  in  the  same  light  ;  «S.  Is.  ii. 
3,  the  law  will  go  out  from  Sion  and  the  word  of  the  Lord  fr<un  Jeru- 
salem ;  €.  The  ajtostles  and  the  first  Christians  were  chosen  from 
among  t!u' Jews  ;  cf.  Acts  xiii.4() ;  Hom.  iii.  2  ;  C-  The  Chaldee  jiara- 
])hrase  always  si)eai\s  of  "thy  sons." 

It  is  oidy  the  Latin  translation  of  the  parajdirase  that  has  the  sin- 
gular nund)er  in  this  text,  and  has  thus  giventhe  ])atrons  of  the 
above  view  au  ai)parent  argument  for  their  position.     As  to  the  Jews, 


THE  MESSIA8  IS  TEE  SON  OF  ABRAHAM.       233 


Gen.  XXVIII.  10-15. 

But  Jacob  being  departed  from  Bersabee,  went  on  to  Haran. 
And  when  he  was  come  to  a  certain  place,  and  would  rest  in  it 
after  sunset,  he  took  of  the  stones  that  lay  there,  and  putting 
under  his  head,  slept  in  the  same  place.  And  he  saw  in  his  sleep 
a  ladder  standing  upon  the  earth,  and  the  top  thereof  touching 
heaven,  the  angels  also  of  God  ascending  and  descending  by  it, 
and  the  Lord  leaning  upon  the  ladder  saying  to  hira:  "  I  am  the 
Lord  God  of  Abraham  thy  father,  and  the  God  of  Isaac  :  the  land 
wherein  thou  sleepest  I  will  give  to  thee  and  to  thy  seed.  And 
thy  seed  shall  be  as  the  dust  of  the  earth:  thou  shalt  spread  abroad 
to  the  west  and  to  the  east,  and  to  the  north,  and  to  the  south, 
and  in  thee  and  thy  seed  all  ^  the  tribes  of  the  earth  shall  be  blessed. 
And  I  will  be  thy  keeper  whither  soever  thou  goest,  and  will 
bring  thee  back  into  this  land:  neither  will  I  leave  thee  till  I  shall 
have  accomplished  all  that  I  have  said." 

only  the  unfaithful  ones  have  excluded  themselves  from  the  Messi- 
anic blessing.  St.  Paul  in  Gal.  iii.  6-9  and  14-16  argues  from  the 
mystical  body  of  Christ,  which  includes  all  the  faithful  (cf.  Gal.  iii. 
29).  Ps.  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.)  17;  Jo.  viii.  56;  Acts  iii.  25,  26  and  iv.  11 
treat  of  the  primary  and  principal  source  of  the  Messianic  blessing, 
but  not  of  the  adequate  source.  The  oath  mentioned  in  Luke  i.  72, 
73  has  been  fulfilled  because  the  seed  of  the  patriarchs  has  become 
a  source  of  blessing  through  the  merits  of  Christ. 

^  Shall  be  blessed.  4.  In  the  fourth  place,  we  must  investigate  the 
nature  of  the  blessing  which  has  come  to  all  the  nations  of  the  earth 
,  through  the  seed  o2  tue  patriarchs.  The  full  meaning  intended  by 
the  Holy  Ghoct  may  be  gathered  from  divers  texts  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament :  He  promises  the  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God  (Jo.  iii.  16)  ; 
the  death  of  Christ  (Rom.  v.  6-10) ;  the  remission  of  sins  (Luke  xxiv. 
47  ;  I.  Jo.  ii.  12)  ;  all  the  riches  of  grace  (Eph.  i.  3,  6)  ;  the  adoptive 
sonship  of  God  (Jo.  i.  13  ;  liom.  viii.  15-17)  ;  the  indwelling  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (Rom.  v.  5  ;  viii.  15,  16,  26  ;  I.  Cor.  iii.  16)  ;  the  right 
to  a  heavenly  inheritance  (Rom.  viii.  17)  ;  a  participation  of  the 
divine  nature  which  was  to  begin  in  this  life  (II.  Pet.  i.  4)  ;  the  beati- 
fic vision,  life  eternal,  etc.  (I.  Cor.  xiii.  12 ;  Rom.  vi.  22;  viii.  19-23  ; 
I.  Jo.  iii.  2).  Though  the  Holy  Ghost  intended  all  these  blessings  in 
the  prophecies,  it  does  not  follow  that  all  had  to  be  understood  at 
once. 


234  GENEALOOY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 


COROLLAllIES. 

1.  Patriarchal  Hope. — As  to  the  nature  of  tlie  Messianic 
salvation  which  the  ]nitriarclis  must  liave  inferred  from 
these  promises,  we  may  safely  hold  that:  a.  They  must 
have  understood  tlie  promises  of  spiritual  blessings,  because 
they  were  represented  as  a  reward  of  Abraham's  faitli  and 
obedience;  God  himself  mentions  the  preservation  of  the 
true  religious  worship  as  one  particular  blessing  (Gen. 
xviii.  19),  and  the  emphasis  wliich  he  lays  on  the  promises 
would  liardly  be  justifie*!  if  they  referred  to  natural  bless- 
ings alone,  h.  "Wlien,  how,  and  tlirough  wliicli  particular 
members  of  their  offspring  these  blessings  would  be  realized, 
and  to  wliich  particular  nations  they  w'cre  to  extend,  and 
finally  in  liow  far  the  offspring  of  the  patriarclis  would  be 
instrumental  in  tlu' blessing  of  the  nations, — all  these  points 
were  so  many  mysteries  for  the  recipients  of  the  prophetic 
promises,  unless  tlieir  minds  were  especially  enlightened 
(cf.  Jo.  viii.  5;")  f.). 

2.  Relation  of  the  Patriarchs  to  the  Prophecies.— It 
is  of  interest  to  consider  the  different  relations  which  the 
three  patriar(^hs  hold  in  regard  to  this  prophetic  scries. 
Abraham  is  promised  twice  that  in  him  and  once  that  in 
his  seed  all  tlie  nations  of  the  earth  will  lie  blessed;  Isaac 
obtains  the  promise  tliat  in  his  seed  the  national  blessing 
will  be  given  to  the  world ;  Jacob  finally  is  promised  that 
in  him  and  in  his  seed  the  same  blessing  will  be  given. 
Cajetan  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  while  A])raham 
and  Jacob  figure  personally  as  mediators  of  the  blessing,  in 
Isaac's  case  only  his  seed  is  mentioned  as  the  medium. 
The  reason  given  for  this  difference  of  relation  is  sought 
by  the  same  theologian  in  the  fact  that  Al)rahani  is  the 
father  of  faith,  Jacob  is  the  father  of  the  chosen  people, 
while  Isaac  is  father  of  Esau  too,  in  whom  wc  may  sec  the 
representative  of  the  future  schisms. 

Whatever  truth  there  may  be  in  this  reasoning,  it  is  ccr- 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  ABRAHAM.        235 

tain  that  Isaac  holds  a  peculiar  position  in  Jewish  legends. 
He  is  represented  as  an  angel  made  before  the  world  (Orig. 
in  Jo.  ii.  25) ;  as  one  of  the  three  men  in  whom  human  sin- 
fulness has  no  place,  and  as  one  of  the  six  over  whom  the 
angel  of  death  has  no  power  (Eisenmenger,  Entd.  Jud.  i. 
343,  864).  He  is  said  to  have  been  instructed  in  divine 
knowledge  by  Sem  (Jarchi,  Gen.  xxv.),  and  evening  prayer 
is  connected  with  him  (Gen.  xxiv.  03),  as  morning  prayer 
with  Abraham  (Gen.  xix.  37)  and  night  prayer  with  Jacob 
(Gen.  xxviii.  11;  Eisenmenger,  Entd.  Jud.  i.  473). 

The  Arabian  traditions  too  preserved  in  the  Koran  rep- 
resent Isaac  as  a  model  of  religion,  as  a  just  man  insj)ired 
by  grace  to  do  many  good  works,  as  a  man  of  jn'ayer  and 
of  almsgiving  (c.  xxi.),  as  endowed  with  the  divine  gifts  of 
prophecy,  of  children  and  of  wealth  (c.  xix.).  Isaac's 
promise  and  offering  are  also  mentioned   (c.  xi..  38). 

The  following  may  serve  as  models  of  several  fanciful 
representations  assigned  to  the  patriarchs  by  some  modern 
writers.  A.  Jukes  (Types  of  Gen.)  regards  Adam  as  rep- 
resenting human  nature;  Cain  is  the  type  of  the  carnal 
mind,  Abel  of  the  spiritual,  Noe  of  regeneration,  Abra- 
ham of  faith,  Isaac  of  sonship,  Jacob  of  service,  Joseph  of 
suffering  or  glory.  Ewald  (Gesch.  i.  387-400)  views  the 
whole  patriarchal  family  as  a  typical  group  of  twelve  mem- 
bers, a.  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  are  three  fathers,  rep- 
resenting active  power,  quiet  enjoyment,  success  after 
struggles;  they  may  be  compared  to  Agamemnon,  Achilles, 
and  Ulysses  among  the  Greeks,  to  Anchises,  ^neas,  and 
Ascanius  among  the  Trojans,  and  to  Romulus,  Eemus,  and 
Numa  among  the  Romans;  b.  Sara  and  Agar  represent  the 
mother  and  mistress  of  the  household ;  c.  Isaac  represents 
the  child ;  d.  Isaac  with  Rebecca  typifies  wedlock ;  e.  Lia 
and  Rachel  show  the  plurality  of  coequal  wives;  /. 
Debbora  is  the  nurse  (cf.  Anna  and  Caieta,  yEn.  iv.  654;  vii. 
1).  g.  Eliezer  represents  the  steward  whose  office  is  com- 
pared Avith  that  of  tlie  messenger  of  the  Olympic  deities. 

Placing  these  theories  among  the  works  of  fancy,  where 


236  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  ME8SIAS. 

they  belong,  we  must  fiuiilly  state  the  typical  character 
given  to  the  patriarchal  history  from  the  earliest  times  of 
ecclesiastical  literature.  It  is  true  that  the  typical  charac- 
ter of  Isaac  is  barely  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament; 
but  Philo  and  all  the  interpreters  who  are  influenced  by  the 
Alexandrian  ])hilosophy  draw  out  tlie  typical  view  with 
minute  particularity.  Passing  over  these  brilliant  rather 
than  solid  explanations,  we  find  that  Clement  of  Rome 
(c.  31)  sees  in  Isaac  an  example  of  faith  in  God ;  Tertullian, 
pattern  of  monogamy  and  of  Christ  bearing  the  cross; 
Clement  of  Alexandria  finds  allegorical  meanings  in  Isaac's 
dealings  with  Abimelech  and  in  his  intended  immolation; 
Origen,  Augustine,  and  Christian  interpreters  generally 
explain  Isaac's  immolation  as  representing  Christ's  death 
on  the  cross;  Rhabanus  Maurus  has  drawn  out  this  figure 
in  all  its  particulars. 


THE  MESBIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  JACOB.  237 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  JACOB.     Num.  xxiv.  15-19. 
InTRODLX'TION". 

1.  Time  and  Occasion  of  the  Prophecy.— In  the  first 
month  of  the  fortieth  year  after  tlieir  leaving  Egypt,  the 
Israelites  encamped  for  the  second  time  in  Cades  (Num. 
XX.).  Here  Mary,  the  sister  of  Moses,  died ;  here  too  the 
people  again  murmured  against  the  Lord  by  reason  of  a 
want  of  water,  and  here  Moses  and  Aaron  committed  the 
sin  of  diffidence  in  the  help  of  God.  Since  Moses  knew 
that  they  could  hardly  expect  to  enter  Palestine  from  the 
south  side  on  account  of  the  strongly  fortified  towns,  he 
led  the  people  around  towards  the  east,  sending  messengers 
from  Cades  to  the  kings  of  Edom  and  Moab,  in  order  to 
obtain  a  free  passage  through  their  territories.  Permission 
being  refused,  the  territories  of  these  princes  had  to  be 
avoided,  and  thus  it  was  that  Israel  came  to  Mount  Ilor. 
Here  Aaron  died;  then  King  Arad  (Num.  xxi.),  who  had 
at  first  gained  some  advantages  over  Israel,  was  vanquished; 
but  on  their  way  south,  which  had  to  be  taken  in  order  to 
pass  around  Edom,  the  Israelites  again  murmured  and 
were  punished  by  the  fiery  serpents.  Finally,  the  people 
advanced  along  the  eastern  boarder  of  Edom  northward, 
till  they  reached  the  Arnon.  AVIien  Sehon,  king  of  the 
Amorrhitcs,  refused  them  a  free  passage  through  his  ter- 
ritory to  the  Jordan,  they  conquered  liis  whole  kingdom 
from  the  Arnon  to  the  Jeboc;  then  Og,  the  king  of  Basan, 
was  put  to  death,  and  his  kingdom  with  its  sixty  fortified 
cities  taken.     Next  the  Isi-aelites  turned  again  southward. 


238  GENEALOGY  OF  TUE  MESSTAS. 

and  encamped  in  the  fields  of  Moab,  across  Jordan,  oppo- 
site Jericho  (Num.  xxii.  1  ff.). 

Bahic,  the  king  of  Moab,  was  frightened,  made  an  alli- 
ance with  the  Madianitcs,  and  being  not  yet  confident 
enongh  in  their  combined  forces,  Balac  sent  to  Balaam,  the 
son  of  Beor,  who  lived  in  the  land  of  the  Ammonites,  re- 
questing him  to  come  and  curse  Israel.  After  the  well- 
known  remonstrances  on  the  part  of  God,  tlie  appearance 
of  the  angel,  and  the  talking  of  Balaam's  ass,  the  sooth- 
sayer finally  reaches  the  camp  of  Balac,  where  he  is  re- 
ceived with  all  possible  splendor.  First  the  prophet  is  led 
to  the  Baal  heights  (Num.  xxii.  41;  xxiii.),  on  the  eastern 
part  of  Mount  Abarim,  where  he  repeats  the  blessing  of 
Abraham  in  spite  of  the  seven  altars  and  tlie  seven  burnt- 
offerings  prepared  by  Balac.  Balaam  is  now  made  to 
ascend  the  summit  of  Phasga  (Num.  xxiii.  13  ff.),  where 
he  repeats,  in  spite  of  the  same  bountiful  sacrifices,  the 
blessing  of  Juda  and  the  covenant  blessing  of  Iloreb. 
The  third  time  Balac  and  Balaam  ascend  Phogor  (Num. 
xxiii.  27  If.),  where  the  prophet  repeats  the  combined 
blessings  of  Abraham  and  Jacob.  Finally,  before  leaving 
Balac,  Balaam  informs  him  of  the  future  of  Israel  (Num. 
xxiv.  14  fP.).  They  shall  triumph  over  Edom  and  Moab; 
then  the  fate  of  the  Amalecites  (1.  c.  20),  the  Cinites  (1.  c. 
21,  22).  and  the  Assyrians  (1.  c.  2:5,  24)  is  announced. 

2.  Character  of  the  Prophet. — No  doubt  Balaam 
was  a  Gentile  soothsayer,  who  had,  however,  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  history  of  Israel  and  with  their  true  God, 
Jehovah,  to  whom  he  had  consecrated  himself.  The  mo- 
tives of  liis  service  may  have  been  like  the  motives  of 
Simon  Magus,  since  he  seems  to  have  been  under  the  sway 
of  avarice  in  the  latter  course  of  his  history.  He  must 
liave  known  the  truth  concerniug  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  aiul  the  future  retribution;  why  else  should  lie  have 
prayed:  "Let  my  soul  die  the  death  of  tlic  just,  and  my 
last  end  l)e  like  to  them  "?  (Num.  xxiii.  10.)  After  being 
disnii.ssed  by  Balac,  Balaam  may  have  gone  over  to  Moses 


THE  MESSTAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  JACOB.  239 

in  order  to  reveal  to  him  the  prophecies  enounced  with  the 
view  of  obtaining  from  the  Hebrews  the  rich  rewards 
which  he  liad  lost  at  the  court  of  the  Moabite  king.  Not 
obtaining  what  he  desired  he  gave  the  wicked  advice  to 
the  Madianites  of  enticing  the  Hebrews  into  sin,  and  thus 
rendering  them  odious  to  Jehovah  (cf.  Num.  xxxi.  8,  16; 
xxvi.  1-3;  Apoc,  ii.  14).  He  was  slain  among  the  Madian- 
ites by  the  avenging  liands  of  Hebrews. 

3,  Atjthorship  of  the  Prophecy. — It  is  not  certain,  as 
Driver  says  (Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old, 
Testament,  1S92,  p.  G2),  whether  Num.  xxiii.  and  xxiv.  be- 
long to  J  or  E,  or  whether  they  are  the  work  of  the  com- 
piler, who  has  made  use  of  both  sources.  Critics  dilfer,  the 
author  continues,  and  it  is  wise  to  leave  the  question  unde- 
termined. Delitzsch  (Messianic  Prophecies  in  Historical 
Succession,  translated  by  S.  I.  Curtiss,  New  York,  1891, 
p.  G5)  is  a  little  more  determined:  "We  admit  that  the 
narrative,  as  it  lies  before  us,  is  combined  out  of  several 
sources  that  may  be  clearly  distinguished,  and  that 
the  historical  element,  as  it  survived  in  the  '  sage/ 
has  been  reproduced,  not  without  literary  co-operation, 
but  without  doubting  the  fact  that  the  heathen  sorcerer, 
contrary  to  his  natural  disposition,  became  a  prophet 
of  Yahweh,  and  that  he  received  an  insight  into  the 
future  of  Israel,  whose  significance  only  has  its  counter- 
part in  the  second  part  of  the  Book  of  Zechariah 
and  the  Book  of  Daniel."  Provided  the  Mosaic  and 
inspired  authorship  of  the  prophecy  in  its  present  form 
is  saved,  we  may  grant  any  nuinnor  of  composition. 

4.  Unchristian  Applications  of  the  Prophecy.— «. 
Vershuir  (Bibliotheca  Brcm.  nova  class,  iii.  1,  pp. 1-80)  denies 
the  relation  of  Balaam's  prophecy  to  the  Messias  in  any 
sense,  and  regards  it  as  applying  alike  to  David,  John  Hyr- 
canus,  and  Alexander  Janna?us„  The  seventeenth  verse  he 
refers  to  the  first  two,  the  nineteenth  verse  to  the  last.  h. 
Michaelis  and  Dathe  too  have  denied  the  Messianic  char- 
acter of  the  prophecy,  applying  it  to  David  alone,     c.  De 


240  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MES8IAS. 

Wette  endejivors  to  prove  from  tliis  })roi)hecy  the  fictitious 
nature  of  the  whole  story  and  tlie  s])uriousiics8  of  the 
rontatcucli. 

5.  Messianic  Character  of  Balaam's  Prophecy.— 1. 
Jewish  tnidiliou  looks  upon  the  |)assu_i,^e  as  Messianic.  The 
Targum  Onkelos  reads:  "  When  a  miglity  king  of  Jacob's 
liousc  will  reign,  and  the  Messias  will  be  nnignified."  The 
Targum  Jonatlum  has  a  similar  parapiirase:  "  When  there 
shall  reign  a  strong  king  of  the  house  of  Jacob,  ami  the 
Messias  siuill  be  anointed,  aiid  a  strong  sceptre  shall  come 
from  Israel.  .  .  ."  Kabbi  kSimeon, the  son  of  Yochai,  taught: 
''Rabbi  Akiba,  my  teacher,  explained:  There  shall  come  a 
star  of  Jacob,  Cosiba  comes  of  Jacob;  for  when  he  saw 
Bar  Cosiba,  he  exclaimed :  Tliis  is  the  Messias  "  (cf.  Je- 
rusalem Taanith,  fol.  08,  col.  4).  A  similar  testimony  is 
found  in  Debarim  Kabba  (sec.  1):  "The  Israelites  said  to 
God:  IIow  long  shall  we  be  in  bondage?  He  replied: 
Till  the  day  comes  of  which  it  is  said:  There  shall  come  a 
star  out  of  Jacob."  In  the  Pesikta  Sotarta  (fol.  58,  col.  1) 
we  read  :  '*  Our  Kabbis  have  a  tradition  that  in  the  week 
in  which  the  Messias  will  be  born  there  will  be  a  bright 
star  in  the  east,  which  is  the  star  of  the  Messias."  In 
81iemoth  Kabba  (sect.  30,  fol.  129,  1)  we  read  the  follow- 
ing passage:  "Parable  of  a  man  who  went  into  a  strange 
country  ami  heard  that  a  public  trial  was  to  be  held.  He 
asked  a  great  talker  when  the  trial  would  be  held.  His 
answer  was:  It  is  still  far  off.  The  man  asked  another  tlie 
same  question,  ami  the  answer  was:  It  will  take  place  very 
soon.  The  nuiu  said :  I  have  asked  the  great  talker,  and 
he  said  it  would  not  take  place  for  some  time.  Tlie  other 
answered :  You  know  that  he  is  a  talker,  and  do  you  think 
that  he  would  like  the  trial  to  take  place  soon,  not  know- 
ing wiu'ther  his  own  case  will  be  tried,  aiul  he  will  be  con- 
demned ?  Thus  the  Israelites  asked  Balaam :  When  will 
the  redemption  come?  He  answered  (Num.  xxiv.  IT):  I 
shall  see  him,  but  not  now;  I  shall  behold  him,  but  not 
near.     The  Holy  lilessed  CJod  said:  Do  you  not  know  that 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  TUE  SON  OF  JACOB.  241 

Balaam  will  go  down  into  hell,  and  that  he  would  prefer 
my  salvation  should  not  come?"  Bechai  (fol.  180,  4) 
reads :  "  I  shall  see  him,  but  not  now,  must  be  understood 
of  David;  I  shall  behold  him,  but  not  near,  of  the  kiug 
Messias;  a  star  shall  rise  out  of  Jacob,  of  David;  a  scep- 
tre shall  spring  up  from  Israel,  of  king  Messias;  and  shall 
strike  the  chiefs  of  Moab,  of  David  (III.  Kings  viii.  3); 
and  shall  waste  all  the  children  of  Seth,  of  the  Messias 
(Ps.  Ixxii.  18) ;  he  shall  possess  Idumea,  of  David  (III.  Kings 
viii.  14);  but  Israel  shall  do  manfully,  of  the  Messias 
(Abdias,  21)."  Another  testimony  we  find  in  Pesikta  So- 
tarta  (fol.  58,  2) :  "  At  that  time  they  shall  blow  a  great 
trunijaet,  and  then  shall  be  fulfilled  what  is  written.  Num. 
xxiv.  17:  A  star  shall  rise  out  of  Jacob."  Sohar  chadasch 
(fol.  44,  2)  reads  thus:  ''I  shall  see  him,  refers  to  the  re- 
demption which  will  be  the  fourth  ;  but  not  now,  but  in 
the  latter  days.  The  world  has  six  days.  On  the  fourth, 
the  heavenly  lights  shall  be  taken  away  and  cease,  i.e.,  the 
sun,  the  moon,  and  the  stars  shall  be  hidden  on  that  day,  as 
they  were  in  the  creation."  It  may  be  noticed  in  passing 
that  the  Messianic  times  are  here  placed  into  the  fourth 
millennium,  or  after  the  first  three  thousand  years.  The 
Sohar  (Num.  fol.  85,  col.  340)  has  the  following  remarks 
about  Num.  xxiv.  17:  "  God  has  decreed  to  build  up  Jeru- 
salem, and  to  show  a  star  which  shines  besides  seventy 
other  stars,  and  out  of  which  proceed  seventy  satellites, 
and  seventy  other  stars  will  be  taken  with  the  same.  This 
star  is  the  Messias;  his  satellites  are  the  apostles  and  the 
dignitaries  of  the  Church."  A  little  later  the  same  book 
continues :  "  At  the  time  of  the  star's  a^ipearance,  the 
earth  will  tremble  for  forty-five  miles  around  the  place 
where  the  Temple  is  standing.  And  there  shall  be  opened 
a  cavern  under  the  ground  out  of  which  shall  come  forth  a 
fire  that  will  set  the  earth  on  fire.  The  heavenly  bird  too 
will  come  forth  out  of  the  cavern,  to  whom  empire  is  given, 
and  the  nations  of  the  earth  will  be  gathered  under  his 
sway.     And   the   king   Messias  will  apjjear  in  the  whole 


242  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSTA8. 

world,  and  will  take  vengeance  ou  the  Edoniites,  and  set 
the  land  of  8eir  on  fire."  See  also  Sohar,  fol.  58,  1 ;  fol. 
44,  4;  Tikkune  Sohar,  c.  37;  Pesikta  Sotarta,  fol.  58,  1 ; 
Pesikta  Kabbathi,  fol.  20,  4. 

2.  The  Messianic  character  of  the  jjrophecy  uttered  by 
Balaam  may  be  also  recognized  from  the  very  context  of 
the  passage.  For  according  to  the  verse  immediately  jire- 
ceding  the  prophecy,  Balaam  expressly  says  that  it  regards 
the  "latter  days."  Now  this  phrase  "latter  days"  is  gen- 
erally used  of  the  Messianic  times;  (cf.  Gen.  xlix.  1;  Deut. 
iv.  30;  Jer.  xlviii.  47;  Is.  ii.  2,  etc.). 

3.  Then  again  the  contents  of  the  prophecy  point  to  the 
Messianic  fulfilment,  a.  The  victories  of  David,  no  doul)t, 
were  a  partial  fnliiliiient  of  Balaam's  prediction,  and  the 
language  in  which  they  are  reported  seems  to  ])oint  out 
their  reference  to  the  present  prophecy  (cf.  II.  Kings  viii. 
2, 13, 14;  III.  Kings  xi.  15, 1;  Ps.  lix.  (Ix.)  S.)  On  the  other 
hand,  David's  victories  do  not  exhaust  Balaam's  predictions, 
since  they  do  not  amouut  to  a  permanent  conquest  of 
Moab  and  Edom. 

b.  Tile  Moabite  stone  informs  us  that  the  Moabites  were 
again  subdued  by  Omri,  and  kei)t  in  subjection  for  forty 
years.  Then  followed  the  successful  revolt  of  Mesha  (IV. 
Kings  i.  1 ;  iii.  4,  5),  the  new  victory  over  the  Moabites  by 
Jorain  (IV.  Kings  iii.  21),  their  oifensive  war  against  Juda 
in  the  reign  of  Joas  (IV.  Kings  xiii.  20),  and  their  final 
subjection  by  John  Ilyrcanus,  u.c.  129. 

c.  As  to  the  Edoniites,  they  revolted  under  Solomon  (III. 
Kings  xi.  14),  and  more  successfully  under  Joram  (IV. 
Kings  viii.  20),  were  defeated  under  Ainasias  (IV.  Kings 
xiv.  7),  and  again  under  Ozias  (IV.  Kings  xiv.  22),  but 
not  completely  subjugated,  so  that  in  the  reign  of  Achaz 
they  invaded  Juda  (II.  Paral.  xxviii.  17). 

d.  Accordingly,  we  lind  that  the  pro]ihets  who  lived  cen- 
turies after  David  took  up  his  prophecies  coucerning  the 
M<>al)ites  and  the  Edoniites,  thus  showing  evidently  that 
they  had  not  been  accomplished  in  the  time  of  David.     As 


THE  MESSIA8  IS   THE  SON  OF  JACOB.  243 

to  Moab,  see  Is.  xv.  ^  xvi.  1-5;  xxv.  20  tt'. ;  Amos  ii.  1;  So- 
phoii.  ii.  8  if.;  iis  to  Edom,  sec  Is.  xxxiv.  5  It'.;  Ixiii.  1-G; 
Jer.  xlix.  7  ff. ;  Lam.  iv.  21,  22;  Ezech.  xxv.  12;  Amos  ix. 
11,  12;  Abdiiis,  17  11:".;  both  nutions  are  referred  to  in  Is. 
xL  14. 

e.  If  it  is  evident  that  the  prophecy  has  not  been  fully 
'accomplished  by  any  of  the  Jewish  kings,  it  is  also  certain 
that  the  Moabites  and  the  Edomites  are  common  types  in 
the  prophetic  writings  signifying  in  general  all  the  enemies 
of  the  kingdom  of  God,  as  they  were  the  bitterest  foes  of 
the  theocracy.  Thus  it  is  plain  that  the  final  overthrow  of 
all  those  who  oppose  the  kingdom  of  God  is  })redicted  by 
the  prophet,  and  this  final  defeat  is  to  be  infiicted  by  the 
star  that  shall  rise  out  of  Jacob,  and  by  the  ruler  who  shall 
come  out  of  Israel. 

4.  The  fact  that  the  last  Jewish  rebel  who  rose  in  the 
reign  of  Hadrian  took  the  name  Bar-cochab,  i.e.,  Son  of  a 
star,  proves  the  two  propositions  laid  down  in  the  preced- 
ing number:  that  the  Jews  of  that  period  regarded  the 
present  prophecy  as  still  unfulfilled,  though  Moab  had  long 
before  vanished  from  history,  and  that  the  actual  accom- 
plishment of  the  prediction  was  expected  in  Messianic 
times.  Hence  when  Bar-cochab  proved  to  be  a  failure,  the 
disappointed  Jews  called  him  Bar-coziba,  i.e..  Son  of  a  false- 
hood. AVhy  should  the  false  Messias  have  been  called  thus 
in  reference  to  his  former  name  Bar-cochab  if  this  had  not 
been  regarded  as  the  name  of  the  true  Messias  ? 

5.  If  it  be  urged  against  us  that  Balaam  could  not  have 
understood  his  jn-ophecy,  we  may  freely  grant  this  prem- 
ise, but  we  deny  the  inference  drawn  from  it.  Projjhets 
do  not  necessarily  understand  the  full  import  of  their 
prophetic  predictions  (cf.  I.  Pet.  i.  11);  and  if  this  be  true 
of  the  good  and  faithful  prophets  of  the  Lord,  why  could 
it  not  happen  in  the  case  of  a  Gentile  whose  heart  was 
perverted,  and  whose  dominant  passion  seems  to  have  been 
that  of  the  traitor  apostle  Judas  ? 

6.  Finally,  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  and  Christian  tra- 


24:4  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MES8IAS. 

dition  htiYO  never  given  any  other  than  a  Messianic  inter- 
pretation to  IJahuun's  prophecy  (cf.  Tiibing.  Quartalsch., 
1844,  p.  474;  18G0,  p.  G54;  1872,  p.  G'^o  ff.;  Reiuke,  Bei- 
triige,  vol.  4). 

Num.  XXIV.  15-19. 

Balaam  '  the  sou  of  Beor  hath  said, 

The  man  whose  eye  is  stopped  up  ''  hath  said, 

Tiu!  hi'aror  of  the  words  of  God  hath  said, 

Wlio  kuowetli  the  doctrine  of  the  highest 

And  seetli  the  visions  of  tlie  Ahnighty, 

Who  '  falling  hath  his  eyes  opened. 

I  shall  see  him,  but  not  now, 

I  shall  behold  him,  but  not  near. 

A  *  star  shall  rise  out  of  Jacob, 

'Metre.  Both  Bickell  and  (iit'tiuanii  agree  that  the  present  pas- 
sage belongs  to  the  lieptasyllabic  khid  of  verse;  the  movement  is 
iaiiihie. 

■•'  Stopped  up.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  rendered  occurs  only  here 
and  in  the  parallel  i)assage  (Num.  xxiv.  3),  and  hence  it  has  been 
variously  interpreted.  1.  CJesenius,  De  Wette,  Hujjfeld,  Keil,  llengs- 
tenl)erg,  etc.,  translate  the  word  as  the  Vulgate  does  by  "  closed  "  or 
"stopped  up."  If  this  rendering  be  accepted,  there  is  again  a  two- 
fold way  of  explaining  the  word  :  </.  Balaam's  e\es  were  closed,  as  far 
as  the  correction  of  his  error  was  concerned  (lihabau.  Maur.)  ;  b.  Ba- 
laam's bodily  eyes  were  closed,  because,  being  in  the  ecstatic  state,  ho 
was  bereft  of  the  usi^  of  his  senses  (a  Lajjide,  'I'rochon,  etc.).  2.  The 
LXX.,  Saad,  Maurer,  Fiirst,  Wogue,  Knobel,  etc.,  translate  the  phrase 
"the  man  whose  eyes  are  open."  They  appeal  es))ecially  to  the 
Mishna  (Abixl.  Sar.  c.  v.),  where  the  verb  used  in  the  present  ]iassage 
signifies  the  unstopping  of  a  wine-jar.  They  thus  ]nit  an  antithesis 
between  Balaam's  being  in  a  trance  and  having  his  eyes  ojien.  The 
former  rendering  is  much  better  suited  to  the  context,  and  is  also  sup- 
jiorted  by  ln'tter  authority. 

■'Who  falling.  The  falling  mentioned  in  this  i)assage  seems  to 
have  been  the  condition  under  which  the  inward  o]>eningof  Balaam's 
eyes  took  place.  It  indicates  rather  tlie  force  of  the  divine  rev»da- 
tion  overjiowering  the  seer  tlian  his  vision  of  the  divine  glory  (cf. 
Dan.  viii.  17  ;  .\i>oc.  i.  17).  \\'e  find  hardly  any  instance  of  such  u 
falling  in  the  ca.se  of  (Jod's  faithful  ])rophets  ;  in  the  case  of  St.  i'aul 
and  III  Halaam  it  shows  that  God's  word  had  to  overcome  a  stubborn 
human  will. 

^  A  star.  Kx])lanations  :  1.  The  star  which  apjieared  at  the  birth 
of  Christ  is  foretold  (Orig.  c.  Celsum,  i.  12,  2).  This  is  hardly  proba- 
ble, since  that  star  did  not  "  risi-  out  of  .lacob  ;"  nordoes  St.  Matthew, 
who  carefully  collects  the  Me.ssianic  fulfilments  in  his  gospel,  apply 


THE  ME<SIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  JACOB.  245 

And  a  sceptre  shall  spring  up  from  Israel, 

And  shall  strike  the  chiefs  of  Moab, 

And  shall  waste  ail  the  children  *  of  Seth. 

And  he  shall  possess  °  Idumca, 

The  inheritance  of  Seir  shall  come  to  their  enemies, 

But  Israel  shall  do  manfully. 

the  prophecy  to  that  event.  2.  The  star  is  the  figure  of  a  mighty 
king.  Reasons  :  a.  The  star  has  served  among  all  nations  as  the 
symbol  of  regal  power  and  dignity  (V^irg.,  Eclog.  ix.  47  ;  Horat.,  Od. 
I.  xii.  47  ;  Justin,  Ilistor.  xxxvii.  3  ;  Curtius,  IX.  vi.  8 ;  Sueton. 
Ixxxviii.  ;  .^Eschyl.,  Agam.  6;  Is.  xiv.  13;  Dan.  viii.  10;  Apoc.  i.  10, 
30  ;  ii.  1  ;  ix.  1).  b.  The  idea  was  current  among  the  Jews,  since  the 
false  Messias  appearing  after  Jesus  was  called  I3ar-cochab,  i.e.,  sou 
of  a  star. 

5  Children  of  Seth.  Explanations  :  1.  Seth  is  a  proper  name  (Vulg., 
LXX.,  and  ancient  versions  generally).  <i.  It  refers  to  Seth,  the  son  of 
Adam,  so  that  children  of  Seth  is  equivalent  to  "  all  mankind."  The 
passage  thus  understood  is  often  explained  :  "  he  shall  rule  all  man- 
kind "  (Unkelos,  Rashi,  etc.).  But  "all  mankind"  is  never  called 
"  the  children  of  Seth,"  though  it  may  be  called  "the  children  of  Adam 
or  the  children  of  Noe."  Again,  the  king  foretold  will  not  destroy 
mankind,  but  save  it ;  or  if  the  other  explanation  of  ruling  be  pre- 
ferred, it  must  be  ke])t  in  mind  that  the  verb  does  not  bear  the  sense 
"to  rule."  The  passage  in  Jer.  xlviii.  45  too  demands  anotlier  expla- 
nation, since  that  prophet  evidently  borrows 'from  the  ])resent  passao-e. 
b.  Seth  is  the  proper  name  of  a  Moabite  prince  (Winzer).  This  expla- 
nation is  more  satisfactory,  but  is  based  on  a  mere  conjecture,  c.  Seth 
is  connected  with  the  Hebrew  word  "  .shaon  "  used  in  Jer.  xlviii.  45, 
so  that  the  children  of  "Seth"  signifies  "the  children  of  noise,"  or 
"tumultuous  ones"  (Gesen.,  Keil,  Filrst,  Maurer,  Reinke,  etc.).  The 
term  "  tumultuous  ones"  is  rightly  considered  to  designate  the  Moa- 
bites  (cf.  Ex.  xv.  15  ;  Is.  xv.  4  ;  xvi.  G).  3.  The  word  Seth  is  con- 
nected with  the  Hebrew  "  shathah,"  so  that  the  children  of  Seth  are 
the  children  of  the  drunkard  (Ililler,  Hofmann,  Kurtz).  The  drunk- 
ard to  whom  allusion  is  made  is  by  these  authors  identified  with  Lot 
(Uen.  xix.  33),  the  progenitor  of  tlJie  Moabites.  4,  The  word  Seth  is 
connected  with  the  Hebrew  "slieeth,"  elevation,  i)ride,  so  that  wo 
must  translate  "the  children  of  boasting"  (Zunz).  The  reference 
of  Jereniias  (xlviii.  45)  to  this  passage  seems  to  render  the  second 
opinion  most  probaljle,  though  Zunz  too  identifies  the  Moabites  with 
the  "  S(;ns  of  boasting."  Another  explanation  will  be  mentioned" 
later  on. 

^  Idumea.  Idumea  is  the  country  of  Edom,  or  E.sau  ;  the  Edomites 
had  refused  free  passage  through  their  territory  to  the  Israelites 
when  the  latter  asked  tlieni  for  it  through  messengers  sent  from 
Cades.  It  is  therefore  just  that  Edom  and  Moab  should  incur  the 
same  punishment,  as  they  had  contracted  the  same  guilt.  Seir  was 
the  older  name  of  the  mountain  land  south  of  Moab  and  east  of  the 
Arabah,  which  the  Edomites  inhabited  ((ien.  xxxvi.  8  ;  Deut.  ii.  1 
etc.). 


246  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESflAS. 

Out  of  Jacob  shall  ho  oomo  that  '  shall  rule, 
And  shall  (k-stroy  the"  rumahis  ()f  tiie  city. 

'He  that  sliall  rule.  This  is  the  i>arjillel  term  to  the  "sceptre" 
and  the  "  star"  wliich  arc  foretold  to  si)riii{^  forth  from  Juc(jI).  By 
destroying  tlie  remuiiis  of  the  city,  or  liim  tiiat  reiuaineth  of  the  city, 
the  conqueror  is  (lescril)ed  as  hunting  out  tlit;  fugitives  till  he  has  cut 
off  all  of  every  ]>lace,  after  defeating  his  enemies  in  hattlc. 

*  Remains  of  the  city.  Frof.  A.  11.  Sayce  (Mehraica,  Oct.,  IfSyT, 
l)p.  «3  1T.)is  of  oi)iiiion  that  the  i)assage  from  "I  shall  seehini"t(j 
"shall  do  manfully,"  etc.,  is  an  old  Aniorrhite  song  of  tiiumph 
udai)ted  hy  Balaam  to  the  successes  of  Itirael.  According  to  tiiis 
theory,  the  same  jioem  occurs  at  least  fouf  times  in  Scrijjture  in 
slightly  varied  form,  its  oldest  form  is  i)reserved  in  Num.  xxi.  28, 
while  Jer.  xlviii.  45,  4G  and  Am.  ii.  2  follow  Balaam's  adaptation 
more  closely.  For  the  right  understanding  of  the  latter,  a  compari- 
son with  the  oldest  form  is  of  tlie  greatest  importance.  It  reads  :  "  A 
lire  is  gone  out  of  Ilesebon,  a  tiame  from  the  city  of  Sehon,  and  hatii 
consumed  Ar  of  the  Moal)ites,  and  the  inhal)itants  of  the  high  ]>laces 
of  the  Arnon."  From  this  wi- see  thai  Halaam  has  suh.stituted  Jacob 
and  Israel  for  Ileselum  and  the  city  of  Sehon;  star  and  sceptre  for 
fire  and  tlame.  The  verb  which  Balaam  uses  after  these  lines, 
"strike,"  fits  in  with  the  sceptre  oidy,  not  with  the  star,  if  it  be 
taken  literally.  Hence  we  must  interpret  the  star  .synd)olically,  as 
king  or  prince.  The  Hebrew  word  rendered  "chiefs  "is  translated 
''tetupU's"  by  Ewald  and  Sayce.  The  latter  scIkjUu-  suggests  the 
reading  (jachpul  instead  of  (janjar,  so  that  we  must  translate  "  it  has 
shattered  the  temples  of  Moab." 

This  enu-ndation  suggests  then  another  nu-aning  for  "  the  children 
of  Seth  ;"  for  this  exi)re.ssion  is  now  parallel  to  "the  temjdes  of 
Moab,"  as  it  replaces  the  original  "  inhabitants  of  the  high  places  of 
the  Arnon."  Now  the  latter  are  the  Moabites  who  worship  in  the 
high  places  of  the  Arnon  ;  the  children  of  Seth  must  then  be  the 
same  ^loabite  worshippers.  From  the  analogy  of  Ben-Ammi  or  Am- 
monite in  (ien.  xix.  "xS  we  infer  then  that  Seth  was  a  god  as  Amnion 
was,  and  this  inference  is  verilied  by  arcli.eological  evidence,  ti.  At 
the  foot  of  the  south-eastern  angle  of  the  llarem  at  Jerusalem,  Sir  C". 
Warren  found,  among  other  fragments  of  early  pottery,  two  handles 
ornamented  with  a  representation  of  the  winged  solar  disk  and  in- 
scrii)tions  in  PhoMiician  letters  of  the  pre-exilic  period.  One  of  these 
reacts:  "belonging  to  Melech-Tsi))li,"  the  other,  "belonging  to  Me- 
lech-Shetli."  The  latter  name  means  "Moloch  is  Sheth  "  according 
to  the  analogy  of  Malchiel,  Malchiyah,  Melchizedek.  Ileiu'e  Seth 
was  not  only  a  deity,  but  his  worshippers  have  left  their  remains  in 
the  valley  of  the  sons  of  Ilinnom.  h.  Dr.  Neubauer  has  ])ointed  out 
that  this  well  agrees  with  the  fact  that  the  antediluvian  patriarch 
Seth  was  the  father  of  Fnosh,  or  man,  as  well  as  with  the  ])roper 
names  Mephi-bosheth  and  Ish-bosheth  (11.  Kings  ii.  S;  I.  I'ar.  viii. 
:};!).  in  which  Hosheth  is  a  contraction  for  Hen  Sheth,  as  Hedad  has 
been  fornu'd  out  of  Mendad.  c.  The  same  inference  is  confirmed  by 
the  meaning  of  Mosheth,  "  shame  ;"  from  11.  Kings  x.  4  acd  Is.  xx.  4 
it  would  seem  that  "  Sheth  "  means  "  the  phallus,"  a  meaning  con- 


THE  ME88IAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  JACOB.  247 


Corollary. 

We  may  point  out  the  following  Messianic  notes  and 
characteristics  contained  in  Balaam's  prophecy:  a.  The 
predicted  ruler  will  belong  to  the  family  of  Jacob. 
b.  He  will  be  powerful  enough  to  destroy  all  Israel's 
enemies,  present  and  future,  c.  As  the  protevangelium 
describes  a  conqueror  of  the  serpent,  who  himself 
will  have  to  suffer  in  th'^  struggle,  as  the  second  pre- 
diction given  to  Sem  points  out  that  man's  salvation  will 
be  brought  about  by  God's  mysterious  dwelling  in  the 
tents  of  Sem,  and  as,  finally,  the  series  of  the  patriarchal 
blessings  implies  the  priestly  office  of  the  future  Saviour 
of  mankind,  so  does  the  present  prophecy  show  forth  the 
Redeemer's  regal  and  princely  character,  d.  It  is  also 
worthy  of  note  that  Balaam  is  the  first  prophet  who 
touches  the  time  of  the  future  Redeemer.  Its  indication, 
however,  is  couched  in  the  negative  terms,  "  not  now," 
"  not  near." 

firmed  by  tlie  Assyrian  sinatu,  "  urine."  Tbe  phallus-worsliip  among 
tbe  ancients  is  too  well  known  to  need  furtber  description.  As  to 
tbe  Moabites  in  particular,  tbeir  Beelpbegor  vvorsbip  is  told  in 
Num.  XXV'.  1-3.  d.  Sayct;  finds  ancttber  confirmation  for  bis  render 
in<:;of  tbe  passage  in  (len  iv.  7  ;  "If  tboudoest  well,  it  is  Sbetb  ;  but 
if  ill,  Cbatatb  lietb  at  tbe  door."  Tbe  latter  be  identifies  witb  tbe 
Assyrian  plague-god  Nerra,  of  wbom  tbe  inscriptions  say  :  "  Nerra 
lietb  at  tbe  gate."  Sbetb,  tberefore,  must  mean  tbe  god  of  genera- 
tion, so  tbat  tbe  passage  means  :  "  If  tliou  do  well,  tby  offspring  will 
be  abundant ;  but  if  ill,  tbe  angel  of  ]iestilence  will  afflict  tbee."  It 
sboukl,  bowever,  be  kept  in  mind  tbat  tins  interpretation  as  well  as 
tbat  given  of  Num.  xxiv.  17-19  is  new  and  is  not  found  in  C'bristian 
tradition.  For  tbougli  wo  do  not  deny  tbat  new  ligbt  may  be  tbrown 
on  Scripture  by  new  investigations,  tbese  results  must  be  well 
weigbed  before  tbey  can  be  accepted. 


248  OENEAL00  7  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  DAVID. 

Section  I.    The  Son  of  David  Shall  Rule  Forever. 

II.  Kings  vii.  1-16  ;  I.  Par.  xvii.  1-17. 

Introduction. 

1.  HiSTOEY  OF  THE  PROPHECY.— Tlie  pocnnd  Book  of 
Samuel,  or  of  Kings,  as  it  is  named  in  our  editions,  opens 
with  the  lament  of  David  over  Saul  and  Jonathan.  David 
is  then  made  king  at  Hebron  over  Juda,  and  subsequently, 
after  the  murder  of  Islioseth,  over  all  Israel  (c.  ii.-*-v.  3). 
Joab  next  cajitures  the  strongliold  of  Jebus,  which  David 
henceforth  makes  his  residence  (v.  4-lG);  then  follow  suc- 
cessful wars  against  the  Philistines  (v.  17-25),  ami  the  ark 
is  removed  from  the  house  of  Obededom  to  the  city  of 
David  (vi.).  Now  David  formed  the  purpose  of  building 
the  Lord  a  temple  in  accordance  with  Deut.  xii.  10  ff.,  but 
Nathan  the  prophet  reveals  to  him  that  the  Lord  reserves 
this  work  for  liis  sou. 

2.  Authorship  of  the  Prophecy.— According  to  Driver 
(Introduction  to  tiu*  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament, 
New  York,  1893),  Anna's  song  and  the  prophecy  of  Natiian 
are  among  the  parts  which  in  their  i)resent  form  have  soiue 
allinities  in  Ihouglit  and  ex})rcssi()u  with  Deuteronomy, 
though  decidedly  k>ss  marked  than  those  observable  in  the 
Kedaction  of  Kings,  so  that  they  can  hardly  be  later  than 
r.  400  i!.c. 

Tlu'  contents  of  th(>  Hooks  of  Samuel  are  so  various  and 
abuu(bint  tliat  they  can  liardly  be   the  work  of  ajiy  single 


THE  MES8IA8  IS  THE  SON  OF  DA  VID.  249 

mtiii,  and  the  descriptions  are  so  minute  and  accurate  that 
we  cannot  suppose  oral  tradition  to  be  the  only  source  of 
the  books.  On  the  other  hand,  the  books  cannot  be  con- 
sidered a  mere  compilation  of  pre  -  existing  documents, 
since  they  constitute  one  continuous  whole.  The  repeti- 
tions which  are  said  to  occur  are  either  the  mere  history 
of  a  repeated  fact — thus  David  fled  twice  to  the  Philistines, 
and  twice  he  proved  his  marvellous  generosity  towards  Saul 
— or  they  are  narrating  the  same  fact  from  different  points 
of  view  and  in  different  connections,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
history  of  the  Ammonite-Syrian  war,  which  is  mentioned 
in  II.  Kings  viii.  12,  and  again  in  x,  1  ff.,  in  order  to  connect 
this  event  with  David's  sin. 

The  author  of  the  books  is  not  named  in  Sacred  Scri^^t- 
ure,  and  Samuel,  who  is  called  their  author  in  the  Babylo- 
nian Gemara,  can  hardly  have  written  them,  since  they 
contain  numerous  events  that  happened  after  Samuel's 
death.  The  opinions  that  Gad,  or  Nathan,  or  Isaias,  or 
Jeremias,  or  Ezechias,  or  Esdras,  has  written  the  books 
are  without  solid  foundation.  We  believe  that  Samuel  and 
Gad  and  Nathan  are  the  joint  authors  of  Kings  I.,  II. 
(I.  Par.  xxix.  29;  xxvii.  24;  ancient  tradition). 

The  time  of  composition  may  be  inferred  from  the  fol- 
lowing facts:  1.  Mention  is  made  of  a  distinction  between 
Juda  and  Israel,  a  distinction  that  was  introduced  in 
David's  time  (I.  Kings  xi.  8;  xvii.  52;  xviii.  IG;  II,  Kings 
ii.  9-10;  V.  1-5;  xix.  41;  xx.  2;  II.  Kings  iii.  10;  xxiv.  1). 
2.  On  the  other  hand,  the  author  does  not  tell  us  of  Solo- 
mon's reign,  though  he  supposes  David's  death  (II.  Kings 
v.  4),  and  asserts  that  Siceleg  belongs  to  the  kings  of  Juda 
(I.  Kings  xxvii.  G) :  the  last  of  these  facts  seems  to  show 
that  the  division  into  the  two  kingdoms  had  already  taken 
place  at  the  time  of  the  writer,  3.  In  the  Sejituagint  ver- 
sion of  II.  Kings  viii.  7  and  xiv.  27  tliere  is  mention  of 
Roboam;  if  then  the  authenticity  of  these  |)assages  were 
beyond  dispute,  it  would  l)e  certain  that  the  books  liave 
been  written  during  the  reign  of  Roboam.     The  facts  con- 


250  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSJAS. 

tained  in  I.  Kings  viii.  8;  xii.  2;  xxix.  3,  6,  8  ;  II.  Kings 
vii.  G,  which  are  sometimes  alleged  as  indicative  of  the 
author's  time,  do  not  shed  any  real  light  on  the  subject. 
The  books  must  have  been  completed  towards  the  end  of 
Solomon's  reigu,  or  under  his  son  T^oboam. 

3.  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecy.—].  Nathan's 
nrcdiction  is  regarded  as  a  prediction  after  the  event  by 
those  authors  whose  views  have  been  stated  above  in  Driver's 
synopsis.  Here  belong  De  Wette,  Movers,  Ewald,  Baur, 
Diestel  (cf.  Meignan,  "Propheties  Messianiques,"  Paris, 
1878,  pp.  120  ff.).  According  to  these  writers  the  words  of 
Nathan,  which  were  very  few  and  most  obscure,  have  after 
the  event  been  am})lified  into  the  present  prophecy.  This 
view  has  been  sufficiently  refuted  where  the  age  of  the 
Books  of  Kings  was  determined. 

2.  The  Messianic  reference  of  Nathan's  prophecy  is  clear 
from  Christian  tradition,  a.  Not  to  speak  of  the  epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  (i.  5)  in  which  the  Apostle  understands 
the  passage  of  Christ's  natural  divine  sonship,  h.  we  may 
point  to  the  testimony  of  1'ert.  (M.  2,  350),  Lact.  (G,  48G), 
Just.  (G,  750),  P]useb.  (22,  4;}0),  Cyr.  Alex.  (7G,  114),  Basil 
(32,  882),  Theodoret,  Procop.,  Walaf.,  St.  Augustine  (Civ. 
Dei,  xvii.  8),  of  St.  Chrysostom  (Tlom.  23  in  Act.  Apost.), 
and  of  St.  Ambrose  (Apol.  David  altera;  cf.  St.  Aug.,  de 
prresent.  Dei,  35;  in  Ps.  cxxvi.).  r.  liesides,  it  must  be 
observed  that  in  point  of  fact,  the  whole  prediction  per- 
fectly agrees  with  Jesus  Christ :  he  is  the  son  of  David,  he 
has  built  a  house  unto  God  by  instituting  the  Church,  his 
royal  throne  will  last  for  ever,  he  is  the  Son  of  Cod,  he  has 
been  chastised  by  Cod  for  our  sins;  still  the  mercy  of  God 
has  not  departed  from  him,  but  has  raised  him  from  the 
dead  and  given  him  all  ])o\ver  in  heaven  aiul  on  earth. 

:}.  The  (piestion  may  be  raised  whether  Nathan's  j)redic- 
tion  applies  to  Christ  in  its  literal  or  in  a  typical  sense. 
'I'lurc  are  certain  reasons  which  would  seem  to  show  that 
all  applies  to  Christ,  and  to  Christ  alone,  in  its  literal 
meaning,     a.  Jesus  aloi\e  reigns  for  ever,  and  I),  according 


THE  MESS] AS  IS  THE  SON  OF  DAVID.  251 

to  St,  Paul  God  lias  said  of  him  alone:  "'I  will  be  to  him 
a  father  "  (of.  Heb.  i.  5).  But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are 
certain  reasons  that  prevent  us  from  applying  the  i:)redic- 
tion  to  Jesus  Christ  alone,  a.  According  to  verse  13,  the 
material  temple  seems  to  be  had  in  view;  b.  the  comjiarison 
with  Saul  which  is  found  in  the  passage  does  not  well  suit 
Jesus;  c.  in  Ps.  Ixxxviii.  (Ixxxix.)  31  it  is  clearly  stated 
that  verse  14  refers  to  the  personal  sins  of  David's  de- 
scendants; d.  the  eternity  of  the  predicted  reign  does  not 
exclude  the  other  descendants  of  David,  though  it  neces- 
sarily includes  also  the  Mcssias, 

4.  These  reasons  for  and  against  the  literal  application  of 
the  passage  to  the  Messias  have  occasioi^ed  a  difference  of 
opinion  concerning  the  real  import  of  the  jirophecy.  There 
are  some  authors  who  understand  verses  12  and  13  and 
the  second  jiart  of  verse  14  literally  of  Solomon,  while  the 
other  parts  are  applied  to  the  Messias  in  their  literal  mean- 
ing. It  is  true  that  a.  no  fact  of  history  contradicts  this 
exposition,  and  b.  that  Heb.  i,  5  is  thus  applied  to  Christ 
alone,  as  it  must  be;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  a.  no  reader 
finds  such  a  mingling  of  the  literal  sense  of  Scripture 
natural  or  plausible,  and  b.  I.  Par.  xxii.  10  demands  that 
the  first  part  of  verse  14,  quoted  in  Heb.  i.  5,  be  applied 
to  Solomon  in  its  literal  sense. 

5.  On  account  of  these  reasons,  other  authors  have 
thought  fit  to  apply  the  whole  passage  in  its  literal  sense 
to  Solomon  and  his  offspring,  including  the  Messias,  because 
all  these  will  exercise  the  royal  power  in  their  own  time 
and  order.  Some  of  these  Avill  be  bad  men,  and  therefore 
the  Lord  will  correct  them  by  means  of  punishments,  with- 
out on  that  account  withdrawing  his  favor  from  the  race 
as  such.  And  if  it  be  said  that  St.  Paul  in  the  repeatedly 
quoted  passage  of  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  applies  this 
])rophecy  to  Christ's  natural  sonship  of  God,  which  cannot 
be  applied  to  tlie  other  descendants  of  David,  it  must  be 
kept  in  mind  that  the  apostle  argues  from  the  typical 
meaning  of  the  passage,  which  applies  to  Jesus  Christ  alone 


252  0ENEAL007  OF  THE  MESSlAS. 

as  the  antitype.  Again,  it  may  be  said  that  the  whole 
prophecy  applies  to  the  whole  series  of  David's  offspring, 
but  is  not  equally  fnllilled  in  the  single  members.  This 
exjilanution  is  given  by  Heinkc,  Ilongstcnberg;  Corluy  and 
Cardinal  Patrizi  give  a  similar  explanation. 

G,  According  to  Cardinal  Patrizi  we  are  bound  to  apply 
the  words,  "  I  will  be  to  him  a  father,  and  he  shall  be  to 
me  a  son,"  in  their  typical  sense  to  the  Messias  on  account 
of  St.  Paul's  argument  in  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  For 
the  apostle  uses  the  words  about  Christ's  natural  sonship 
of  God,  and  since  they  do  not  signify  this  in  their  literal 
sense,  they  must  have  this  meaning  in  their  typical  sense. 
As  to  the  rest  of  Nathan's  i)rediction,  we  mai/  apply  it 
tyi^ically  to  the  Messias,  but  are  not  bound  to  do  so.  For 
it  is  well  understood  that  David  and  Solomon  are  types  of 
the  Messias:  a.  Ps.  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.)  mingles  the  i)raise  of  Solo- 
mon with  that  of  the  Messias,  or  rather  it  describes  the 
Messias  in  such  a  manner  that  the  description  apjilies  also 
to  Solomon,  b.  Jer.  xxx.  9  calls  the  Messias  king  David. 
c.  In  Ps.  XV.  (xvi.)  10,  11;  xxi.  (xxii.)  17-19  David  imper- 
sonates the  Messias.  d.  The  Messianic  types  of  David  and 
Solomon  appear  also  in  Ezech.  xxxiv.  23,  24;  Os.  iii.  5; 
Amos  ix.  11.  e.  Solomon,  the  favorite  son  of  David,  is 
rightly  looked  upon  as  a  type  of  the  true  son  of  David  (Is. 
xi.  1;  Jer.  xxii.  30;  Matt.  i.  1;  Luke  i.  32;  Apoc.  xxii.  IG; 
V.  5;  Matt.  xii.  23;  xv.  22;  xxi.  9;  Mark  xii.  35-37;  Jo. 
vii.  42;  Rom.  i.  3;  II.  Tim.  ii.  8).  /.  The  very  name  of 
Solomon,  or  "  Peaceful,"  prefigures  the  peace  of  the  Mes- 
sianic reign  (cf.  Mich.  v.  5;  Is.  ix.  G,  7;  Luke  i.  79;  ii.  14; 
Is.  liii.  5;  Jo.  xiv.  27;  Acts  x.  3G;  Eph.  ii.  14,  17;  Col.  i. 
20,  etc.).  g.  The  extraordinary  wisdom  possessed  by  Solo- 
mon is  rightly  regarded  as  a  type  of  the  eternal  Wisdom,  or 
the  Word  Incarnate  (cf.  Col.  ii.  3). 

II.  KiX(is  VII.  1-lG. 

And  it  cnnio  to  pass,  wlicn  tlu^  kiiiiic  sat  in  liis  house,  and  the 
I/)r(l  liad  giv(!ii  Iiim  rost  on  overj-  .sitlo  from  all  his  cnoniies,  lie 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  DA  VID.  253 

said  to  Nathan  the  prophet  :  "  Dost  thou  see  that  I  dwell  in  a 
house  of  cedar,  and  the  ark  of  God  is  lodged  within  skins  ?"  And 
Nathan  said  to  the  king  :  "  Go  do  all  that  is  in  thy  heart,  because 
the  Lord  is  with  thee. "  But  it  came  to  pass  that  night  that  the 
word  of  the  Lord  came  to  Nathan,  saying  :  "  Go  and  say  to  thy 
servant  David  : 

"  Thus  saith  the  Lord  :  Shalt  thou  build  me  a  house  to  dwell  in, 
whereas  I  have  not  dwelt  in  a  house  from  tlie  day  that  I  brought 
the  children  of  Israel  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt  even  to  this  day, 
but  have  walked  in  a  tabernacle,  and  in  a  tent,  in  all  the  places 
that  I  have  gone  through  with  all  the  children  of  Israel  ?  Did  I 
ever  speak  a  word  to  any  one  of  the  tribes  of  Israel,  whom  I  com- 
manded to  feed  ray  peojile  Israel,  saying  :  Why  have  you  not 
built  me  a  house  of  cedar  ?  And  now  thus  shalt  thou  speak  to 
my  servant  David  :  Thus  saith  tlie  Lord  of  hosts  :  I  took  thee  out 
of  the  pastures  from  following  the  sheep  to  be  I'uler  over  my 
people  Israel,  and  I  have  been  with  thee  wheresoever  thou  hast 
walked,  and  have  slain  all  thy  enemies  from  before  thy  face,  and 
I  have  made  thee  a  great  name,  like  unto  the  name  of  the  great 
ones  that  are  on  the  earth.  And  I  will  appoint  a  place  for  my 
people  Israel,  and  I  will  plant  them,  and  they  shall  dwell  therein, 
and  shall  be  disturbed  no  more,  neither  shall  the  cliildren  of  in- 
iquity afflict  them  any  more  as  they  did  before,  from  the  day  that 
I  appointed  judges  over  my  people  Israel,  and  I  will  give  thee 
rest  fi'om  all  thy  enemies. 

"  And  '  the  Lord  foretelleth^  to  thee 

'  The  Lord  foretelleth  to  thee.  The  following  is  an  outline  of  God's 
special  dispensation  as  it  is  manifested  in  the  present  passage;  God's 
manner  of  dwelling  among  the  people  corresponds  to  the  nation's 
political  condition.  While  the  people  journeyed  in  the  desert,  or 
were  harassed  by  their  enemies,  God  dwelt  among  them  in  a  tent. 
The  temple  will  be  the  sign  of  the  nation's  final  establishment  in  its 
theocratic  constitution.  At  the  time  when  David  intended  to  build 
the  temple,  the  theocratic  kingdom  was  not  yet  firmly  established. 
For  the  house  of  David  was  to  Ije  its  stay  and  foundation,  and 
the  lioiise  of  David  had  not  yet  conquered  all  its  enemies  ;  David 
was  a  warrior,  while  the  temple  must  be  built  to  serve  as  the  sign 
and  the  seal,  as  it  were,  of  David's  everlasting  kingship.  Consequent- 
ly, the  Lord  must  first  build  l>avid's  house,  before  David's  house  can 
build  the  temjile  (cf.  Clair,  in  IL  Kings  vii.  11). 

-  The  Lord  foretelleth  to  thee.  The  divine  promises  may  be  reduced 
to  three:  a.  the  everlasting  reign  of  David's  family  ;  h.  the  erec- 
tion of  the  temple  by  the  seed  of  David  ;  c.  the  exaltation  of  David's 
seed  to  the  divine  sonship. 


254  GENEALOGY  OE  THE  MESSIAS. 

That  the  Lord  will  make  thee  a  house' ; 

And  when  thy  days  shall  be  fulfilled, 

And  thou  shalt  sleep  with  thy  fat  here, 

I  will  raise  up  thy  seed  after   thee 

AVhich  shall  i)r()ceed  out  of  thy  womb, 

I  will  ('stal)li.sh  his  kint^dom  ; 

lie  shall  build  a  house  to  my  name, 

And  I  will  establish  the  throne  of  his  kingdom  for*  ever ; 

I  will  be  to  him  a  father. 

And  he  shall  be  to  me  a  son  ; 

And  if  he  eonimit  any  inicjuity, 

a.  Balaam  had  foretold  that  a  ruler  should  sprinpf  from  the  family 
of  Jacob  ;  the  dyinfi  Jacob  had  ])oiiited  out  tliat  tiie  ruler  would  rise 
in  tlu!  lion  of  Juda;  Mathan's  ])redictiou  enlari^es  tlie  idea  of  the 
coming  ruler,  wliilt-  it  limits  his  orifjfiu  to  the  family  of  David.  'J'hc 
seed  of  the  woman,  the  seed  of  the  patriarchs,  is  now  identified  with 
the  seed  of  David. 

/;.  Noe  had  i)redicted  that  the  Lord  would  be  the  Ciodof  Sam,  would 
dwell  in  a  s])ecial  manner  in  the  tents  of  Sem  ;  Nathan's  prophecy 
points  out  that  the  Lord  will  dwell  in  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  in  the 
tem])le  ;  but  the  tem])le  itself  is  only  a  historical  fact  which  jMUuts 
in  its  significance  to  tlu'  future.  M'hih;  it  syud)olizes  the  full  estab- 
lishment of  the  theocratic  kingdom,  it  typifies  also  that  whi(di  is  sym- 
bolized by  the  theocracy — the  Messianic  times,  when  (iod  will  dwell 
in  a  new  manner  among  men  through  the  instrunu'utality  of  l)avid's 
royal  seed. 

c.  At  the  Exodus,  Lsrael  had  been  taken  up  into  the  divine  sonship 
(Ex.  iv.  22);  David's  seed  will  enjoy  this  sonship  in  a  far  higher  sense. 
l?ut  there  are  two  sides  which  will  characterize  this  sonshiji:  mercy  and 
diastisement.  The  latter  is  desciibed  as  inflicted  in  order  to  reuuive 
«n;  it  is  therefore  a  chastisement  of  redemption,  a  tyi)e  of  the  He- 
decmer's  sufTering  in  order  to  free  us  from  our  sins.  Here  it  must  bo 
noted  again  that  Nathan's  prophecy  carries  the  Messianic  idea  further 
than  it  had  been  nuide  known  before  that  time.  It  had  iiuleed  Ix'cn 
forc^told  that  the  serpent  would  lie  in  wait  for  the  woman's  seed,  but 
now  the  sufTering  is  no  more  to  come  from  tlu'  ser|)ent  or  the  ser- 
pent's seed,  but  from  (lod  himself  with  a  view  to  future  correction 
(cf.  Hriggs,  "  Messianic  Prophecy,"  ]>.  lOS). 

'House.  'I'hisword  has  either  its  i)roi)er  (I.  Par.  xvii.  4)  or  a  meta- 
jdiorical  meaning  (Kx.  i.  21  ;  Deut.  xxv.  J);  Huth  iv.  11  ;  1  Kings 
ii.  ;}.">),  as  its  context  ri'(]uires.  In  the  jjre.sent  pro])hecv  it  occurs  in 
both  meanings,  as  the  text  shows. 

■•For  ever.  This  clause  denotes  sonu-times  a  very  long  time, 
sometiuu'S  an  eternal  duration  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word.  Its 
em|)liasis  in  the  present  ])ropliei'y,  its  absolute  form,  its  parallel  ]ias- 
sages  (I's.  ixixviii.  150,  ;is  ;  Ixxi.  T),  7,  17),  its  Messianic  reference  (Luke 
i.  ;{2,  ;{:{),  art-  so  numy  indications  that  eternity  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  word  is  here  spoken  of. 


THE  MES8IAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  DAVID.  255 

I  will  correct  him  with  the  rod  of  men, 

And  with  tlie  stripes  of  the  children  of  men. 

But  my  mercy  I  will  not  take  away  from  him, 

As  I  took  it  from  Saul, 

Whom  I  removed  from  before  my  face. 

And  thy  house  shall  be  faithful, 

And  thy  kingdom  for  ever  before  thy  face, 

And  thy  throne  shall  be  firm  for  ever." 
.\ccording  to  all  tlicso  words,  and  according  to  all  this  vision,  so 
did  Nathan  speak  to  David. 

COKOLLAKY. 

1 .  The  following  are,  tlierefore,  tlie  Messianic  character- 
istics predicted  in  Nathan's  prophecy :  a.  The  Messuis  will 
be  of  David's  flesh  and  seed.  h.  He  will  be  David's  heir. 
c.  His  reign  will  last  for  ever.  d.  He  will  snrely  come, 
however  unfaithful  the  house  of  David  may  prove  to  be. 
e.  He  will  be  the  natural  son  of  God. 

2.  But  it  follows  from  the  preceding  paragraphs  that  not 
all  these  particulars  could  be  understood  from  tlie  prophecy 
unless  God  specially  enlightened  the  mind  of  the  reader  or 
hearer.  What  David  could  naturally  infer  from  Nathan's 
words  was  that  some  kind  of  royal  power  would  remain  in 
his  family  for  ever,  or  at  least  for  a  long  space  of  time.  In 
point  of  fact,  however,  the  Holy  Ghost  seems  to  have  en- 
lightened David's  mind  so  that  he  understood  also  the 
Messianic  reference  clearly.  This  Ave  conclude  from  Acts 
ii.  30,  31;  Ps.  xv.  (xvi.)  10;  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.);  xliv.  (xlv.)  7. 

Section  II.  The  Son  of  David  is  the  Prince  of  Pastors. 

Jer.  xxiii.  1-8.  ;  cf.  Jer.  xxxiii.  14-26. 

Introduction". 

1.  Connection  of  the  Prophecy  with  its  Context. — 

Jer.  xxi.  11-xxiii.  8  forms  an  important  group  of  prophe- 
cies. The  divine  judgments  on  the  successive  rulers  who 
occupied  in  Jeremias'  day  the  throne  of  David  are  vividly 


256  UKNEALOUY  OF  TllK  M/iJSSlAS. 

described.  An  iiitroduetury  statement  is  found  in  xxi.  11- 
14;  then  follows  an  admonition  impressing  upon  the  king 
the  paramount  im})ortance  of  justice,  xxii.  1-9;  this  part 
may  be  regarded  as  the  fulfilment  of  ])eut.  xxix.  2:5  f.; 
next  follow  the  special  judgments  on  the  individual  kings. 
First  Sellum  (Shallum,  the  recompensed,  who  must  be 
identified  with  Joachaz)  will  suffer  ])er])etual  banisliment 
in  Egypt,  vv.  10-12;  Joakim  (Jehoiakim)  will  have  an 
ignominious  end,  since  his  exactions  strangely  contrast 
with  the  just  dealings  of  his  father  Josias,  vv.  13-19;  in 
the  third  place,  Jechonias  (Jelioiachin)  will  be  banished  to 
a  foreign  land,  vv.  20-30. 

After  this  follows  the  clinuix  of  the  entire  prophecy  in 
xxiii.  1-8:  vv.  1-2  contain  a  denunciation  of  the  faithless 
shepherds  who  have  neglected  aiul  ruined  their  charge;  but 
if  thus  the  one  part  of  II.  Kings  vii.  14  finds  its  fulfilment, 
God  does  not  forget  the  favoral)lc  promise  made  to  the 
liousc  of  David.  Consequently,  Jeremias  closes  with  a 
promise  of  ultimate  restoration,  and  a  picture  of  the  rule 
of  the  ideal  king  springing  from  Jesse's  seed,  contrasting 
this  rule  point  by  point  with  the  defects  of  his  own  con- 
temporary kings,  vv.  3-8.  Such  contrasts  are  noticeable 
between  xxii.  13,  17  and  xxiii.  5b;  xxiii.  1-2  and  xxiii.  6a; 
iii.  15  and  xxiii.  4.  About  the  special  meaning  of  the  royal 
names  in  these  prophecies  commentators  are  not  yet 
agreed;  some  of  the  more  ])lansible  explanations  maybe 
seen  in  Knabenbauer  (In  Jer.,  p.  283)  and  in  Ilengsteuberg 
(Christology,  Washington,  1839,  iii.  pp.  398  f.). 

2.  Jer.  XXXIII.  14-26  is  parallel  to  Jer.  xxiii.  1-8;  in 
fact.  Driver  calls  it  a  mere  repetition  in  a  slightly  varied 
form;  IJriggs  (Messianic  Pro])heey,  p.  244)  says:  "These 
[prophecies]  are  essentially  the  same,  and  yet  they  differ  in 
certain  important  i)articulars,  showing  that  the  second  pas- 
sage is  an  enlargement  and  an  improvement  upon  the  first." 
The  princijjal  dilliculty  arising  in  connection  with  the  sec- 
ond passage  is  the  doubt  concerning  its  authenticity.  The 
doubt  has  its  foundation  in  the  fact  that  a.  the  second 


THE  MES8IAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  DA  VID.  257 

passage  is  wanting  in  the  LXX.,  aiid  h.  that  parts  of  the 
passage  are  a  mere  repetition  of  previous  prophecies;  tlms 
vv.  14,  15,  10  are  nearly  the  same  as  Jer.  xxiii.  5,  G;  vv. 
20-22  are  almost  identical  with  xxxi.  35-37;  vv.  25,  26  are 
ap^mrently  taken  from  the  same  place. 

It  is  on  this  account  that  J.  D.  Michaelis,  Jahn,  Ilitzig, 
Movers,  and  Scholz  reject  the  authenticity  of  Jer.  xxxiii. 
14-2C.  Catholic  authors  generally,  and  among  non-Catho- 
lics, Kiiper,  Ilengstenberg,  Ewald,  Graf,  Keil,  and  Smith 
defend  the  authenticity  of  our  passage.  As  to  its  absence 
from  the  LXX.  version,  a.  it  maybe  owing  to  an  accident,  or 
h.  the  Hebrew  copy  from  which  the  version  was  made  may 
have  accidentally  lacked  the  passage,  c.  Ilengstenberg  is 
of  opinion  that  its  absence  from  the  LXX.  proves  only  that 
even  at  such  an  early  date  there  were  scholars  Avho  had 
as  little  critical  judgment  as  those  learned  men  of  our 
day  manifest  who  reject  the  passage  as  unauthentic  (cf. 
Knabenbauer,  in  Jer.,  p.  421;  Ilengstenberg,  "  Christol- 
ogy/'  AVashington,  1839,  iii.  p.  445  ;  Briggs,  "Messianic 
Prophecy,"  p.  244,  etc.). 

3.  Subject  of  the  Prophecy.— The  principal  subject 
of  the  prophecy  is  determined  by  the  meaning  of  the 
"pastors"  in  v.  4,  of  the  "just  branch"  in  v.  5,  and  of  the 
"  Lord  our  just  one  "  in  v.  6.  a.  Venema  agrees  with  sev- 
eral scholars  preceding  him  in  explaining  v.  4  as  referring 
to  the  time  of  the  Machabees.  But  it  must  be  granted 
that  according  to  the  context  the  "  pastors "  will  be  con- 
nected with  "the  just  branch"  of  David;  now  the  Macha- 
bees did  not  belong  to  David's  royal  family,  h.  The  same 
reasoning  holds  with  regard  to  Grotius'  opinion  accordinf 
to  which  the  "  pastors  "  refer  to  Esdras  and  Nehemias.  c. 
The  explanation  according  to  which  Zorobabel  is  spoken 
of  in  the  fourth  verse  is,  at  least,  incomi^lete;  it  is,  how- 
ever, defended  by  St.  Ephrem,  Theodor.,  Calmet,  Eeinke, 
Sanct.,  etc.  Hengstenberg  endeavors  to  exclude  this  inter- 
pretation for  two  reasons:  First,  the  subject  spoken  of  in 
verse  4  must  be  identified  with  the  "  just  branch  "  men- 


268  GENEALOGY  OF  TlIK  MK^tSlAS. 

tionod  in  the  fifth  verse;  now  the  latter  can  hardly  be 
identified  with  Zorobahel.  Seeondly,  if  Zorobabel  were 
spoken  of  in  tlie  fourth  verse,  Jereniins  woukl  describe  tlie 
Israelite  salvation  by  degrees;  but  such  a  gradual  develo])- 
ment  of  salvation  is  unknown  in  the  j)ro])la't  Jereniias  (cf. 
llengst.,  iii.  p.  400).  The  fourth  verse  s])eaks  about  "pas- 
tors "  in  the  plural,  because  the  evil  to  which  this  particu- 
lar good  is  opposed  consisted  of  a  series  of  individuals,  or 
else  because  the  opposing  good  is  considered  as  a  generic 
idea.  d.  'J'he  majority  of  Christian  interpreters  exidain  v. 
4  as  referring  to  the  Messias  (Maid.,  Mar.,  Lap.,  Men.,  Tir., 
Bade,  Scholz,  Schn.,  Ilengst.,  etc.).  ix.  The  connection  of 
the  verse  with  the  following,  fi.  the  extent  of  the  promises 
connected  with  the  slie})herds,  y.  the  New  Testament  pas- 
sages representing  the  Messias  as  the  good  sheidierd,  and  d. 
the  usual  way  in  which  Jeremias  describes  the  Messianic 
salvation  are  so  many  proofs  that  the  ]\Iessias  is  spoken  of 
in  the  fourth  verse,  e.  Still  all  this  may  be  granted,  and 
nevertheless  the  above-mentioned  reference  of  the  passage 
maintained,  in  so  far  as  Zorobabel  is  truly  a  type  of  the 
future  Messias.  Such  a  view  Avould  remove  most  of  the 
difficulties  above  stated,  and  would  satisfy  all  exigencies  of 
text  and  context. 

Thus  far  we  have  supposed  that  the  context  of  verse  4 
refers  to  the  Messias;  this  sup})osition  must  now  be  based 
on  a  solid  foundation.  Verse  5  supplies  us  several  proofs 
for  our  position,  n.  The  "  branch  "  is  a  peculiarly  Messi- 
anic title,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  dying  words  of 
David  (II.  Kings  xxiii.  3-5  Ileb.),  from  Is.  iv.  2;  Zach.  iii. 
8;  vi.  1'3.  Then,  he  who  is  here  called  "the  branch"  is 
named  "  David,"  Jer.  xxx.  9;  "pastor,"  Ezech.  xxxiv.  23; 
"my  servant  David,"  Ezech.  xxxvii.  24  (cf.  Os.  iii.  5;  Mich. 
V.  1;  Is.  xi.  1;  Am.  ix.  12).  h.  The  words  "a  king  shall 
reign"  bear  a  peculiarly  Messianic  reference.  'J'he  restora- 
tion of  the  theocracy  had  })een  repeatedly  i)romised,  and 
the  Davidic  king  was  foretold  in  II.  Kings  vii.  14  and  II. 
Kings  xxiii.  3-5  (Ileb.).      c.  The  words  "shall  be  wise" 


THE  MESSIA8  IS  TUE  SON  OF  BAVID.  259 

have  also  a  Messianic  bearing,  as  may  be  seen  from  Is.  xi. 
2;  xlii.  1;  lii.  13  (Heb.).  d.  Finally,  the  clause  "and 
shall  execute  judgment  and  justice  in  the  earth "  well 
agrees  with  the  Messianic  explanation  of  the  whole  passage. 
For  similar  attributes  are  predicated  of  the  Messias  in  Is.  ix. 
(i,  7;  xi.  3  f. ;  xlii.  G;  xlix.  G,  7  f.  .  .  .  David  is  therefore 
rightly  considered  as  the  type  and  the  model  of  the  Messias 
(II.  Kings  viii.  15). 

The  Messianic  reference  of  the  whole  passage  is  also 
confirmed  by  the  sixth  verse,  where  the  name  of  the  com- 
ing Saviour  is  given  as  "the  Lord  our  just  one,"  or,  as  the 
Hebrew  text  reads,  "  the  Lord  our  justice."  For  though 
Scliolz,  Ewald,  Graf,  Naeg.,  Cheyne  refer  this  name  to 
Israel,  their  reason  for  doing  so  is  by  no  means  proof 
against  all  exceptions.  It  is  true  that  in  xxxiii.  16  Jere- 
mias  applies  this  name  to  Jerusalem,  but  this  fact  does  not 
show  that  the  prophet  applies  the  name  to  Jerusalem  where- 
soever he  uses  it.  a.  As  the  context  in  which  Jeremias 
employs  this  name  differs  in  different  passages,  so  may  its 
application  vary  in  various  contexts.  It  is  not  at  all  im- 
proper that  Jerusalem  should  be  named  "the  Lord  our 
justice,"  since  Jerusalem  as  the  type  of  the  Church  repre- 
sents the  Messias'  mystical  body.  h.  But  in  the  present 
context,  the  opening  clause  shows  unmistakably  that  the 
Messias  himself  is  denoted  by  the  name.  For  in  the  He- 
brew text  we  read  "in  his  days,"  and  not  "in  those  days." 
The  pronoun  "'  his  "  refers  back,  therefore,  to  the  "  branch  " 
of  the  preceding  verse,  c.  At  the  same  time  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  "him"  of  the  sixth  verse.  Hence  the 
"him"  of  verse  G  is  identical  with  the  " branch,"  which 
we  have  shown  to  be  a  name  of  the  Messias.  And  conse- 
quently, "  the  Lord  our  justice"  is  the  name  by  which  they 
shall  call  the  Messias. 

Finally,  we  must  add  a  few  Eabbinic  testimonies  to  show 
that  our  interj^retation  of  Jeremias'  prophecy  agrees  with 
that  of  the  Synagogue.  The  Targum  translates  the  clause 
of  verse  5,  "  I  will  raise  up  to  David  a  just  branch,"  by  the 


260  OENEALOr,  Y  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

words:  "  I  will  raise  unto  Duvid  the  Messias  the  just."  The 
Talmud  (Uaba  Bathra,  Ibb;  Yalkut  in  loco)  has  the  fol- 
lowing comment  on  the  sixth  verse:  "Rabbi  Samuel,  the 
son  of  Nachman,  said  in  thci  name  of  Rabbi  Jonathan: 
Three  are  called  by  the  name  of  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be 
he!  viz.:  the  just,  the  Messias,  and  Jerusalem.  Of  the  just 
it  is  said :  Every  one  that  is  called  by  my  name  (Is.  xliii. 
7).  Of  the  Messias  it  is  said:  This  is  his  name.  .  .  And 
of  Jerusalem  it  is  written:  And  the  luime  of  the  city 
from  that  day  shall  be.  The  Lord  is  there  "  (Ezech.  xlviii. 
35). 

The  Midrash  on  Lamentations  i.  IC  bears  clear  testi- 
mony for  the  Messianic  character  of  our  passage:  "What 
is  the  name  of  the  king  Messias  ?  Rabbi  Abba,  sou  of 
Kahana,  said :  Jehovah,  for  it  is  written:  This  is  his  name 
whereby  he  shall  be  called,  the  Lord  our  Righteousness, 
Rabbi  Levi  said:  Blessed  is  the  city  whose  name  is  like  the 
name  of  its  king,  and  the  name  of  its  king  like  the  name 
of  his  God.  Blessed  is  the  city  whose  name  is  like  the 
name  of  its  king;  because  it  is  written:  And  the  name  of 
the  city  from  that  day  shall  be  'Jehovah  is  there'  (Ezech. 
xlviii.  35);  and  the  name  of  its  king  like  the  name  of  its 
God ;  for  it  is  written :  And  this  is  his  name  whereby.  .  . 
Rabbi  Joshua,  son  of  Levi,  said:  Branch  is  the  name  of 
the  Messias,  for  it  is  written :  Behold  the  man  whose  name  is 
Branch,  aiul  he  shall  grow  out  of  his  place.  Rabbi  Judan 
said,  in  the  luime  of  Rabbi  Ibo:  Comforter  (Menachem) 
is  his  name;  for  it  is  written:  The  comforter  is  far  from 
me  (Ijam.  i.  IG).  Rabbi  Ilanina  replied:  There  is  no 
contradiction  in  the  assertions  of  both;  for  Zemach  and 
Menachem  are  equal  in  number"  (cf.  Midrash  on  Ps.  xxi. 
1;  Prov.  xix.  21;  Mechilta  on  Jer.  xvi.  14). 

The  Talmud  (Boraehoth,  fol.  xii.  col.  ii.)  has  a  similar 
testinu>ny  on  Jer.  xxiii.  7,8:  "Ben-Zoma  asked  the  wise 
men :  "Will  mention  be  made  of  the  Egyptian  Exodus  in 
the  days  of  the  Messias?  Is  it  not  said:  The  days  come, 
saith  the  Lord,  .  .  ?    They  replied :  The  Egyptian  Exodus 


THE  MESSTAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  DA  VID.  261 

will  not  lose  its  place  altogether,  but  will  only  become 
secondary,  in  view  of  the  liberation  from  the  subjection  to 
the  other  Gentile  kingdoms." 

The  Targum  translates  Jer.  xxxiii.  15:  "I  will  raise 
up  unto  David  the  Messias  of  justice,"  instead  of  the  com- 
mon version:  "  I  will  make  the  bud  of  justice  to  spring 
forth  unto  David."  Hence  the  Messianic  interpretation 
given  by  the  Synagogue  of  the  latter  passage  is  beyond  dis- 
pute. 

Jer.  XXIII.  1-8. 

"Woe  to  the  pastors'  that  destroy  and  tear  the  sheep  of  my 
pasture,"  saith  the  Lord.  Therefore  thus  saitli  the  Lord  the  God 
of  Israel  to  the  pastors  that  feed  my  people:  "  You  have  scattered 
my  flock,  and  driven  them  away,  and  have  not  visited  them  ;  be- 
hold I  will  visit  upon  you  for  the  evil  of  your  doings,"  saith  the 
Lord. 

"And  I  will*  gather  together  the  remnant  of  my  flock,  out  of 
all  the  lands  into  which  I  have  cast  them  out,  and  I  will  make 
them  return  to  their  own  fields,  and  they  shall  increase  and  be 
multiplied." 

"And  I  will  set  up  pastors  over  them,  and  they  shall  feed  them  ; 
they  shall  fear  no  more,  and  they  shall  not  be  dismayed,  and  none 
shall  be  wanting  of  their  number,"  saith  the  Lord. 

■  Pastors.  The  pastors  are  the  kings  of  the  people  (cf .  Jer.  xxii.  22  ; 
n.  Kings  V.  2  ;  vii.  7).  Their  crime  is  twofold  :  they  have  corrupted 
the  people  of  Qod  morally,  and  have  ruined  them  socially  ;  for  in 
the  theocratic  state  moral  and  social  welfare  are  connected.  This 
general  threat  of  the  Lord  against  the  unfaithful  shepherds  is  then 
specially  applied  to  the  unfaithful  pastors  of  Israel.  Their  sins  are 
summarized  in  the  clause:  "you  have  not  visited  them."  God, 
thei'efore,  summarizes  their  punishment  too  in  the  words  ■  "  I  will 
visit  upon  you  for  the  evil  of  your  doings." 

'  I  will  gather  together.  After  announcing  the  punishment  of  the 
pastors  the  prophet  proceeds  to  predict  the  mercies  of  God  towards 
his  people.  They  are  reduced  to  three  heads  :  1.  God  will  gather 
the  remnant  of  his  fiock  which  the  unfaithful  pastors  had  scattered 
into  all  lands,  and  will  restore  it  to  tlie  land  of  promise,  where  it  will 
pr(jsper  and  multiply.  2.  Instead  of  the  faithless  pastors  God  will 
set  up  faithful  shepherds,  who  will  provide  the  proper  nourishment, 
will  ward  off  all  danger,  and  will  not  lose  any  under  their  charge. 
3.  Finally,  God  will  raise  up  the  "just  branch"  of  David's  line,  who 
will  rule  with  wisdom  and  justice  all  the  world  over.  This  will  give 
rise  to  his  name  "  the  Lox'd  our  just  one." 


262  OENEALOCY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

"  Behold  tlio  divys  come,"  saitli  tlic  Lord,  "and  1  will  raise  up 
to  David  a  just  l)ranch  ;  and  a  king  shall  reign,  and  shall  be  wise  ; 
and  shall  execute  judgment  and  justice  in  the  earth.  In  those 
days  shall  Juda  be  saved,  and  Israel  shall  dwell  confidently  ;  and 
this  is  the  name  that  they  shall  call  him:  The  Lord  our  just  one." 

"Therefore,'  behold  the  days  come,"  saith  the  Lord,  "and 
they  shall  say  no  more:  The  Lord  liveth  who  brought  up  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt  ;  but :  The  Lord  liveth 
who  hath  brought  out  and  hath  brought  hither  the  seed  of  the 
house  of  Israel  from  the  north  country,  and  out  of  all  the  lands, 
to  which  I  liad  cast  them  forth  ;  and  they  shall  dwell  in  their  own 
land." 

Jeii.  XXXIII.  14-26. 

"  Behold,*  the  days  come,"  saith  the  Lord,  "that  I  will  per- 
form the  good  word  that  I  have  spoken  to  the  house  of  Israel, 

3  Therefore,  behold  the  days  come.  In  the  third  ])lace  the  ])ro])het 
describes  the  sentiuienls  of  tlie  gathered  tli)ck  after  its  restoration. 
Even  as  Israel  testitied  the  greatest  gratitude  to  (iod  for  its  delivery 
from  Egypt,  so  will  the  restored  children  of  Israel  jjraise  (lod  for 
bringing  them  from  tlie  norfli  country  and  out  of  all  the  lands  into 
whicii  tliey  had  been  driven  throutrh  the  carelessness  of  their  pastors. 

•*  Behold  the  days  come.  The  whole  prophetic  passage  (Jer.  xxxiii. 
14-2(5)  may  be  divided  into  three  parts  :  1.  (iod  i)roniises  in  general 
his  Messianic  blessings,  including  a  continuation  of  David's  royal 
house  in  the  bud  of  justice,  and  of  the  sacrifice  by  the  hands  of  the 
priests  and  Levites.  The  city  itself  will  thus  according  to  the  Hebrew 
text  be  named  "the  Lord  our  just  one,"  taking  its  name  from  the 
name  of  its  king  and  master  (vv.  14—18).  2.  The  restoration  of 
David's  kingdom  and  of  the  i>riests  and  Levites  as  well  as  the  multi- 
plication of  David's  antl  the  Levites'  seed  is  as  sure  as  the  regular 
interchange  of  day  and  night  ;  since  then  with  these  two  institu- 
tions the  theocracy  stands  and  falls,  the  future  restoration  of  the 
theocracy  is  iufallii)ly  to  come  (vv.  19-22).  8.  Finally,  the  ])roj)het 
answers  the  doubts  (vv.  2)V2(5)  of  certain  Chaldee  or  Egyptian  or 
Samaritan  tribes  (Uliaban.,  St.  Tliom.,  Mar.,  Movers,  .lahn,  Trochon, 
Hitzig),  or  better  of  certain  ditlident  members  of  the  .b-wisli  kingdom 
(Theod.,  \'at.,  Sanct  ,  Laj).,  ("almet.  Loch,  Scholz,  Schn.,  Nag.,  Keil, 
Or.,  etc.),  who  believt' that  the  I  jord  has  cast  otT  his  two  chosen  families, 
i.e.,  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Juda  (Sanct. ,  («ord.,  Sch<d/,,  Schn., 
Trochon),  or  the  tribes  of  .Juda  and  Benjamin  (Malv.),  or  the  families 
of  David  and  Aaron  (Theod.,  ALild..  Mar.,  Heinke,  Loch),  or  both 
the  tribes  of  .Iiida  and  Henjaniii\  and  the  families  of  David  and  Aaron 
(Lap.,  Tir.),  or  finally  either  the  former  or  the  latter  ])air  dihaban., 
St.  Tliom.,  Calinet).  The  Lord  consoles  the  diliident  Israelites  and 
confounds  their  boastful  enemies  l)y  rej)eating  the  assuranci*  of  his 
love  for  the  chosen  i)eo])le  (fn  acc<)unt  <>f  its  glorious  ancestors  (of. 
Knabenl).,  in  h.  I.). 


THE  MESSfAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  DA  VID.  263 

and  to  the  house  of  Juda.  In  those  days  and  at  that  time,  I  will 
make  the  bud  of  justice  to  spring  forth  unto  David,  and  he  shall 
do  judgment  and  justice  in  the  earth.  In  those  days  shall  Juda 
be  saved,  and  Jerusalem  shall  dwell  securely,  and  this  is  the  name 
that  they  shall  call  him  :  The  Lord  our  just  one." 

For  thus  saith  the  Lord:  "There  shall  not  be  cut  off  from 
David  a  man  to  sit  upon  the  throne  of  the  house  of  Israel. 
Neither  shall  there  be  cut  off  from  the  priests  and  Levites  a  man 
before  my  face,  to  offer  holocausts,  and  to  burn  sacrifice,  and  to 
kill  victims  continually." 

And  the  word  of  the  Lord  came  to  Jeremias,  saying:  "Thus 
saith  the  Lord:  if  my  covenant  with  the  day  can  be  made  void, 
and  my  covenant  with  the  night,  that  there  should  not  be  day  and 
night  in  their  season:  then  may  also  ray  covenant  with  David  my 
servant  be  made  void,  that  he  should  not  have  a  son  to  reign  upon 
his  throne,  and  with  the  Levites  and  priests  my  ministers.  As 
the  stars  of  heaven  cannot  be  numbered,  nor  the  sand  of  the  sea 
*be  measured:  so  will  I  multiply  the  seed  of  David  my  servant, 
and  the  Levites  my  ministers." 

And  the  word  of  the  Lord  came  to  Jeremias,  saying:  "Hast 
thou  not  seen  that  this  people  hath  spoken,  saying :  '  The  two 
families  which  the  Lord  had  chosen  are  cast  off,'  and  they  have 
despised  my  people,  so  that  it  is  no  more  a  nation  before  them  ? " 
Thus  saith  the  Lord  :  "If  I  have  not  set  my  covenant  between 
day  and  night,  and  laws  to  heaven  and  earth  :  then  indeed  I  will 
also  cast  off  the  seed  of  Jacob,  and  of  David  my  servant,  so  as  not 
to  take  any  of  his  seed  to  be  rulers  of  the  seed  of  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob.  For  I  will  bring  back  their  captivity  and  will  have 
mercy  on  them." 

Corollaries. 

1.  The  people  of  Israel  is  assured  that  whatever  moral 
and  political  evils  have  befallen  the  theocracy  on  account 
of  its  faithless  pastors  the  -Lord  himself  will  ro2)air  by 
means  of  faithful  pastors  and  of  the  just  and  wise  rule 
brought  in  by  David's  branch.  And  since  the  latter  was 
commonly  identified  with  the  Messias,  it  follows  that  Jere- 
mias consoles  the  people  with  the  Messianic  hope,  and  thus 
strengthens  it  to  bear  patiently  the  evils  of  the  coming 
exile. 


264  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  MESSTA8. 

2.  Since  David's  branch  will  be  called  "  Jahveli  our  jnst 
one  "many  interpreters  have  looked  upon  this  name  as 
indicating  the  divine  nature  of  the  Messias.  a.  The  ques- 
tion wliethor  the  subject  of  the  clause  "  they  shall  call  him  " 
is  indefinite  (Jerome  and  the  majority  of  commentators) 
or  whether  "the  Lord"  must  be  supplied  (LXX.),  is  of 
no  special  weight  either  for  or  against  the  foregoing  oi)inion. 
/;,  The  opinion  is  more  solidly  su})porled  by  the  fact  that 
the  Messias  must  be  what  he  is  named.  But  he  is  called 
"  Jahveh  our  justice."  Hence  he  is  "  Jahveh  our  justice." 
But  the  divine  name  Jahveh  is  incommunicable  to  creat- 
ures. Hence  the  Messias  is  God.  Still,  this  argument  is 
considerably  weakened  by  the  consideration  that  Jerusalem 
bears  the  same  name  in  Jer.  xxxiii.  IG  (Ileb.),  and  that  the 
altars  erected  by  Moses  and  Jacob  have  a  divine  name  (Ex. 
xvii.  15  (Hob.);  Gen.  xxxiii.  20  (Ileb.)).  c.  Nor  is  the 
argument  that  the  preceding  reason  is  valid  because  it  rests 
on  the  name  of  a  person  strong  enough  to  render  the 
opinion  in  defence  of  which  it  is  urged  scientifically  prob- 
able. For  there  are  many  pro[)er  and  personal  names  in 
Hebrew  which  are  etymologically  composed  of  El  or  Jah- 
veh, like  the  name  "Jahveh  our  justice,"  without  on  that 
account  implying  the  divinity  of  the  bearer.  Joachaz, 
Joakim,  Jechonias,  Sedecias  are  only  a  few  examples  illus- 
trating this  fact.  d.  It  is  therefore  safer  to  prove  the  divinity 
of  the  Messias  from  other  jiassages  of  the  Old  Testament. 
That  done,  one  may  return  to  the  name  "Jahveli  our  jus- 
tice," and  show  that  it  contains  a  summary  of  the  whole 
Messianic  economy.  It  describes  the  Messias,  considered 
absolutely,  as  gifted  with  all  the  treasures  of  divinity;  and, 
from  a  relative  point  of  view,  it  represents  him  as  the 
fountain  of  all  sui)enuitural  grace,  since  he  is  our  justice. 

3,  The  ])riests  of  whom  Jercmias  here  speaks  are  not  the 
descendants  of  Aaron  according  to  the  flesh  (cf.  Jer.  iii.  Ifi; 
xxxi.  32).  In  the  same  numner  the  pro])het  must  bo 
understood  to  si)eak  about  the  jiastors  and  priiu-es  as  the 
moral  olTspring  of  David.     Ps.  xliv.  S  su])poses  that  the 


TBE  MBSSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  DA  VJD.  266 

Messias  will  have  a  number  of  companions  in  his  work  of 
redemption  ;  and  since  the  Messias  is  called  David,  king, 
the  prince  of  pastors  (Ezech.  xxxiv.  23;  xxxvii.  22,  24,  25), 
his  companions  are  rightly  designated  sons  of  David.  The 
Hebrew  word  for  "  seed  "  bears  such  an  interpretation,  and 
the  New  Testament  strictly  agrees  with  it  (Gal.  iii.  20;  I. 
Pet.  ii.  5;  Apoc.  i.  6;  v.  10). 

Section  III.  The  Messias  will  spring  from  "  the  Marrow 
of  the  High  Cedar." 

Ezech.  xvii. 

Introduction. 

1.  Time  and  Occasion  of  the  Prophecy.— Nabuchodo- 

nosor,  king  of  Babylon,  had  carried  Jeclionias  (Jouchin),  the 
son  of  Joakim,  to  Babylon,  after  he  had  reigned  only  three 
months.  Matthanias,  Joachin's  uncle  and  son  of  Josias, 
was  made  King  of  Juda  in  place  of  his  nephew;  his  name 
was  changed  to  "  Sedecias"  on  the  occasion  of  his  swearing 
fidelity  to  the  king  of  Babylon.  All  this  occurred  in  the 
eighth  year  of  Nabuchodonosor's  reign.  As  early  as  the 
fourth  year  of  Joakim's  reign  the  prophet  Jeremias  had 
commanded  all  to  subject  themselves  to  Nabuchodonosor 
(Jer.  XXV.  11),  signifying  that  only  on  this  condition  Jeru- 
salem would  be  saved  from  ruin  (Jer.  xxi.  8;  xxxviii.  2,  17, 
18).  But  Sedecias  and  his  princes  trusted  in  Egypt,  ex- 
pecting freedom  from  the  Babylonian  yoke  through  an 
Egyptian  alliance.  The  oath  of  fidelity  was  broken,  and 
open  hostility  against  Babylon  was  begun.  In  this  manner 
they  revolted  not  only  against  Babylon,  but  also,  and  espe- 
cially, against  God,  disobeying  his  commands  and  profaning 
his  name.  Ezechiel's  prophecy  is  to  be  placed  between  the 
portion  cc.viii.-xi.,  out  of  the  sixth  month  of  the  sixth 
year,  and  c.  xx.,  out  of  the  fifth  month  of  the  seventh  year, 
since  the  carrying  away  of  Jechonias  (599  B.C.).  It  was 
therefore  spoken  about  five  years  before  the  destruction 
(c.  593  B.C.). 


266  GENBALOOY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

2.  Division  of  the  Prophecy.— The  prophet  describes  in 
vv.  1-21  Sedecias'  disloyalty  to  liis  Babylonian  masters, 
and  the  consequences  wliich  will  result  from'  it;  in  vv. 
22-24  he  gives  us  a  glance  at  brighter  days  to  come,  and 
the  restoration  of  the  Davidic  kingdom  in  the  future. 
Tlie  first  part  contains  in  vv.  3-10  an  allegory,  which  is 
explained  and  ajiplicd  to  the  circumstances  in  vv.  11-21, 

3.  The  Messianic  Character  of  the  Passage  is 
proved  in  the  Corollary. 

EZECH.    XVII. 

And  the  word  of  the  Lord  came  to  me,  saying  :  "  Son  of  man, 
put  fortli  a  riddle,  ;ind  speak  a  jiarable  to  the  house  of  Israel,  and 
say  :  Thus  saitli  (lod  :  A  largo  oagle'  with  great  wings,  long 
limbed,  full  of  feathers,  and  of  variety,  came  to  Libanus,"  and 
took  away  the  marrow  of  the  cedar.  lie  cropped  off  the  top  of 
the  twigs  thereof,  and  carried  it  away  into  the  land  of  Chanaan, 
and  he  set  it  in  a  city'  of  merchants.  And  he  took  of  the  seed 
of  the  land,  and  put  it  in  the  ground  for  seed,  that  it  might  take 
a  firm  root  over  many  waters  ;  he  planted  it  on  the  surface  *  of 

'  A  large  eagle.  This  motaphor  is  employed  frequently  in  Script- 
ure to  describe  a  succes.sful  and  rajjacious  conqueror,  flushed  with 
victories  and  bent  on  pushing  his  victorious  march  rapidlv  from  land 
to  land  (cf.  Is.  xlvi.  11  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  40;  xlix.  21;  Lam."  iv.  19;  II. 
Par.  XXX.  10).  Why  the  projdiet  applies  it  in  the  present  passage  to 
the  kings  of  Babylon  and  of  Kgy])t  is  easily  understood. 

*  Libanus.  .ler.  xxii.  28  exjilains  wliy  .Jerusalem  is  called  Libanus. 
The  most  sumjituous  edifices  of  the  city  were  constructed  out  of  cedar 
Avood  l)roiight  from  Mount  Leljanon.  Tlie  cedar  itself  is  a  figure  of 
David's  royal  house  ;  the  marrow  of  the  cedar  or  its  top  is  the  ruling 
Davidic  kinj^,  in  our  case  .Joachin,  who  had  been  carried  away  by 
Nal)uc]H)(](in()S()r  (IV.  Kin^js  xxiv.  15  ;  IT.  Par.  xxx.  10). 

"City  of  merchants.  Chanaan  is  the  parallel  term  of  the  city  of 
merchants.  Kzecli.  xvi.  2!t  exi)iains  why  Chanaan  is  thus  repre- 
sented as  containing  the  city  of  merchants.  Movers  (Phn^ni/ier,  ii.  8, 
])p.  2'-V^  f . )  exphiins  how  Hal)ylon  can  b(>  ternu'd  a  city  of  merchants. 

■*  On  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Tlu'  Hel)re\v  word  correspondinij  to 
this  clause  is  a  liai)ax  legoiiu'iion  ;  <i.  Vat.,  Maid.,  Mar.,  Calm.,  Schn., 
Keil  render  it  "  willow,"  so  that  the  meaninfr  would  be  :  "  he  planted 
it  like  a  willow,"  i.e.,  that  it  might  jjrow  like  a  willow  over  many 
waters.  1>.  The  meaninj^  "  willow  "  is  rejected  by  St.  Jerome,  Aquila, 
Symmachus,  Theo(h)tion,  who  jifive  the  rendering  "on  the  surface  of 
the  earth."  c  The  sinn^le  Syriac  and  the  Chaldee  versions  speak 
about  "a  vine;"  but  this  rendering  too,  like  that  of  willow,  only 
mixes  the  metaphor. 


THE  MESSTAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  DAVID.  267 

the  earth.  And  it  sprung  up  and  grew  into  a  spreading  vine  of 
low  stature,  and  the  branches  thereof  looked  towards  him,  and 
the  roots  thereof  were  under  him  ;  so  it  became  a  vine,  and  grew 
into  branches,  and  shot  forth  sprigs.  And  there  was  another  large 
eagle,  with  great  wings,  and  many  feathers,  and  behold  this  vine, 
bending  as  it  were  her  roots  towards  him,  stretched  forth  her 
branches  to  him,  that  he  might  water  it  by  the  furrows  of  her 
plantation.  It  was  planted  in  a  good  ground  upon  many  waters, 
that  it  might  bring  forth  branches,  and  bear  fruit,  that  it  might 
become  a  large  vine.  Say  thou  :  Thus  saith  the  Lord  God  :  Shall 
it  prosper  then  ?  shall  he  not  pull  up  the  roots  thereof,  and  strip 
off  its  fruit,  and  dry  up  all  the  branches  it  hath  shot  forth,  and 
make  it  wither,  and  this  without  a  strong  arm,  or  many  people, 
to  pluck  it  up  by  the  root  ?  Behold,  it  is  planted  :  shall  it  pros- 
per then  ?  Shall  it  not  be  dried  up  when  the  burning  wind  shall 
touch  it,  and  shall  it  not  wither  in  the  furrows  where  it  grew  ?" 
And  the  Lord  came  to  me,  saying  :  "Say  to  the  provoking 
house  :  Know  you  not  what  these  things  mean  ?  Tell  them  :  Be- 
hold the  king'  of  Babylon  cometh  to  Jerusalem,  and  he  shall  take 
away  the  king  and  the  princes  thereof,  and  carry  them  with  liim 
to  Babylon.  And  he  shall  take  one  of  the  king's  seed,  and  make 
a  covenant  with  him,  and  take  an  oath  of  him,  yea,  and  he  shall 
take  away  the  mighty  men  of  the  land,  that  it  may  be  a  low  king- 
dom, and  not  lift  itself  up,  but  keep  his  covenant  and  observe  it. 
But  ho  hath  revolted  from  him,  and  sent  ambassadors  to  Egypt, 
that  they  might  give  him  horses  and  much  people.  And  shall  he 
that  hath  done  tluis  prosper  or  be  saved?  and  shall  he  escape  that 
hath  broken  the  covenant  ?  As  I  live,  saith  the  Lord  God  :  In  the 
place  where  the  king  dwelleth  that  made  him  king,  whose  oath  he 
hath  made  void,  and  whose  covenant  he  broke,  even  in  the  midst 
of  Babylon  shall  he  die.     And  not  with  a  great  army,  nor  with 

*  The  king  of  Babylon  cometh.  According  to  the  Hebrew  text  we 
must  render  the  following  verbs  in  the  past  tense:  "The  king  of 
Babylon  has  come  .  .  .  and  has  taken  away  .  .  .  and  carried  tlieua 
with  him  .  .  .  and  has  taken  one  of  the  king's  seed  .  .  .  and  made 
a  covenant  with  liini  .  .  .  and  taken  an  oath  of  him."  All  these  his- 
torical facts  had  happened  before  Ezechiel  uttered  the  present  pas- 
sage, as  may  be  seen  in  IV.  Kings  xxiv.  11  f. ;  Jer.  xxiv.  1  ;  xxix.  2  ; 
II.  Tar.  xxxvi.  i:{ ;  IV.  Kiii^s  xxiv.  14-lG  ;  Jer.  ii.  18,  36,37;  IV. 
Kinu^s  xxiv.  20  ;  .ler.  xxxvii.  5.  Tlie  name  of  the  Egyptian  Pharao 
with  whom  Stnlecias  lia<l  made  his  godless  alliance  was  Apries,  or  ac- 
cordinir  to  Manetho,  Uacliahra  (cf.  Wiedemann,  yEgypt.  Geschichte, 
pp.  (!()2,  (i3()). 


268  OENEALOOT  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

much  people  sliall  Pliaruo  fight  against  liini,  wlien  he  shall  cast 
up  inouiids  and  build  forts  to  cut  off  many  souls.  For  he  hath 
despised  the  oath,  breaking  his  covenant,  and  behold  he  iiatli 
given  his  hand  :  and  having  done  all  these  things,  he  shall  not 
escape."  Therefore,  thus'  saith  the  Lord  God  :  "  As  1  live,  I  will 
lay  upon  his  head  the  oath  he  hatli  despised,  and  the  covenant  he 
hath  broken.  And  I  will  sj)read  my  net  over  him.  and  he  shall 
be  taken  in  my  net,  and  I  will  bring  him  into  Babylou.  and  will 
judge  him  there  for  the  transgression  l)y  which  lie  iiath  despised 
me.  And  all  his  fugitives  with  all  his  baud  shall  fall  by  the 
sword,  and  the  residue  shall  be  scattered  into  every  wind,  and  you 
shall  know  that  I  the  Lord  have  spoken  it." 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  God  :  "I  myself  will  take  of  the  mar- 
row of  the  high  cedar,  and  will  set  it ;  I  will  crop  oflf  a  tender' 
twig  from  the  top  of  the  branches  thereof,  and  will  plant  it  on  a 
mountain  high  and  eminent.  On  the  high  mountain  of  Israel  will 
I  plant  it,  and  it  shall  shoot  forth  into  branches,  and  shall  bear 
fruit,  and  it  shall  become  a  great  cedar,  and  all  birds  shall  dwell 
under  it,  and  every  fowl  shall  make  its  nest  under  the  shadow  of 
the  branches  thereof.  And  all  the  trees  of  the  country  shall 
know  that  I  the  Lord  have  brought  down  the  high  tree,  and  ex- 
alted the  low  tree,  and  have  dried  up  the  green  tree,  and  have 
caused  the  dry  tree  to  flourish.  I  the  Lord  have  spoken  and 
have  done  it." 

*Thus  saith  the  Lord  God.  The  city  will  thus  be  taken,  the  king 
captured  and  led  away,  the  jieopU'  killed  or  dispersed  throughout  the 
regions  of  the  civilized  world.  But  on  the  other  hand  God  had  ])roin- 
ised  Juda  and  David  an  everlasting  kingdom  ((ien.  xlix.  10  ;  H. 
Kings  vii.  13,  16  ;  Ps.  Ixxxviii.  4,  '^'S,  etc.).  Hence  (iod  here  rt'peats 
the  manner  in  wliich  he  will  fulfil  his  promises,  a  descrlytion  of 
which  he  had  already  given  in  Jer.  xxiii.  5  ;  xxxiii.  14,  15,  as  well  as 
in  II.  Kings  vii.  14,  IT);  l\s.  Ixxxviii.  85. 

■"  A  tender  twig.  The  metaphorical  expressions  of  vv.  23-24  Lave 
l)een  exi)laiiied  by  Cliristian  coinnientafors  in  two  dilTerent  ways :  1. 
I  will  take  of  the  marrow  of  the  cedar,  i.e.,  of  Oavid's  royal  house  ; 
I  will  crop  oil  a  tender  twig,  i.e.,  Zorohaixl,  from  the  toj)  of  tlu^ 
branches  thereof,  i.e.,  from  aniong  the  sons  or  the  nephews  of  .lecho- 
nias  ;  on  the  high  mountain  of  Israel  will  I  i)Iant  it,  and  it  shall 
shoot  forth  into  branches  and  sliall  bear  fruit,  and  it  shall  Iteconie  a 
great  cedar,  i.e.,  the  Mes.sianic  king  will  be  born  of  it  (Kphr.,  Prad., 
La]).,  Tir.,  (iordon,  etc).  2.  Hut  other  interpreters  exjilain  the  i).as- 
sage  thus:  I  will  taU<'  of  the  marrow  of  tin-  <'etlar,  i.t».,  of  havid's 
royal  family  ;  1  will  croji  olT  a  tender  l\\  ig,  i.e.,  llie  Messias  ;  all  tliat 
follows  is  then  ajiplied  to  the  Messianic  king  (Tluod.,  Pint..  Maid., 
Sa,  Mar.,  lOsl.,  Men.,  Calm.,  Loch). 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  DAVID.  269 


Corollary. 

Messianic  Character  of  Ezechiel's  Prophecy.— The 

Messianic  nature  of  the  present  prophecy  appears  1.  from 
parallel  Messianic  predictions  contained  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  figure  of  the  twig  may  be  compared  with  the 
figurative  language  in  Am.  ix.  11;  Isaias  too  uses  similar 
metaphors  when  speaking  of  the  Messias  in  iv.  2;  xi.  1; 
liii.  2;  cf.  vi.  13.  2.  The  same  follows  in  the  second  place 
from  several  passages  which  refer  to  the  Messias  in  the 
New  Testament.  In  St.  Luke  i.  33,  33  it  is  said  that  the 
Lord  God  will  give  Christ  the  throne  of  his  father  David, 
and  that  Christ  will  reign  in  the  house  of  Jacob  for  ever, 
and  that  of  his  reign  there  will  be  no  end.  Then  again  we 
have  several  parables  in  which  the  kingdom  of  God  is  com- 
pared to  the  mustard-seed  (Matt.  xiii.  31;  Mark  iv.  31; 
Luke  xiii.  19).  3.  The  Targum  distinctly  and  beautifully 
refers  vv.  22,  23  to  the  Messias,  so  that  the  Jewish  tradition 
agrees  with  our  interpretation.  4.  This  reference  of  the 
passage  to  the  Messias,  drawn  from  extrinsic  authority,  is 
confirmed  by  the  very  extent  of  the  promise.  5.  We  must 
notice  especially  the  similarity  between  the  description 
given  of  the  vine  in  this  passage  and  in  Ps.  Ixxix.;  Mich.  iv. 
6.  Theodoret  understands  the  words  "on  the  high  moun- 
tain of  Israel  will  I  plant  it "  as  referring  to  Christ's  cruci- 
fixion on  Golgotha  (cf.  Trochon,  Ezech.  2:)p.  121  ff. ;  Knab. 
in  Ezech.  c.  xvii.;  Ilengst.,  " Christology,"  iii.  pp.  4T0  ff.; 
Briggs,  "Messianic  Prophecy,"  p.  270;  etc.). 


PART  II. 

BIRTH  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 


CHAPTEU  I. 
PLACE  OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH.     Micu.  v.  2-14. 

Introduction, 

1.  Connection  of  the  Prophecy  with  the  Preceding 

Ones, — It  has  been  shown  that  the  Messias  will  be  the  son 
of  David ;  Miclieas  tells  us  too  that  he  will  be  of  David's 
royal  city.  David  himself  had  come  forward  when  his 
country  was  heavily  afflicted  by  the  inroad  of  the  Phil- 
istines; Micheas  describes  a  threefold  affliction  which  is 
to  befall  the  theocracy,  and  especially  Jerusalem,  before 
the  birth  of  the  Messianic  restorer.  The  three  woes  are 
announced  in  iv.  9,  11 ;  v.  1 :  "Now,  why  art  thou  drawn 
together  with  grief?  hast  thou  no  king  in  thee,  or  is  thy 
counsellor  perished,  because  sorrow  hath  taken  thee  as  a 
woman  in  labor  ?  .  .  .  And  now  many  nations  are  gathered 
together  against  thee,  and  they  say :  Lot  her  be  stoned,  and 
let  oiir  eye  look  upon  Sion.  .  .  .  Now  shalt  thou  be  laid 
waste,  0  daughter  of  the  robber;  they  have  laid  siege 
against  us,  Avith  a  rod  shall  they  strike  the  cheek  of  the 
judge  of  Israel."     It  is  true  that  interpreters  have  explained 

these  three  distinct  woes  as  applying  to  various  misfortunes. 

a7i 


272  nillTII  OF   THE  MESSIAS. 

a.  St.  Cyril'ti  oiiiiiioii  tliat  the  woes  referred  to  Samaria  is 
hardly  tenable  at  present,  b.  There  is  nearly  a  general 
agreement  that  the  first  afllietion  refers  to  the  Babylonian 
captivity  (OOG  u.c);  in  faet,  lialjylon  isex[)ressly  mentioned 
in  the  context.  Diversity  of  opinion  regards  chiefly  the 
second  and  third  predictions,  c.  Several  authors  under- 
stand the  second  prediction  as  ai)i)lying  to  Sennacherib 
(Lap.,  Menochius,  Tir.,  Gordon).  This  explanation  agrees 
well  with  the  words  following  the  second  prediction,  "  he 
hath  gathered  them  together  as  the  hay  of  the  fioor." 
Isaias'  (xxxvii.  30  ff.)  description  of  Sennaclierib's  defeat 
corresponds  well  with  such. an  explanation.  But  A.  the 
words  that  follow  in  Micheas  do  not  harmonize  with  this 
view.  *'  Arise  and  tread,  O  daughter  of  Sion,  for  I  will 
make  thy  horn  iron  .  .  ."  is  a  command  that  imi)lies  active 
resistance  and  pei'sonal  vii-tory  on  tlie  part  of  Sion,  while 
in  Sennachei'ib's  case  Jerusalem  had  no  active  })art  in  the 
king's  destruction.  //.  Then  again,  if  the  first  prediction 
applies  to  the  cai)tivity  (GOO  is.c),  and  the  second  to  Sen- 
nacherib (714  n.c),  the  prophetic  description  goes  chrono- 
logically backwards;  but  in  this  process  the  third  prophecy 
would  liardly  find  any  fit  ajjplication.  For  if  we  were  to 
understand  the  third  j)rophetic  woe  of  Sedecias'  defeat 
(oS8  15.C.)  on  account  of  the  words  "with  a  rod  shall  they 
strike  the  cheek  of  the  judge  of  Israel  "  (Ephrem,  Rib., 
Sauct.),  we  should  have  to  suppose  that  the  i)roj)het  had 
iiiadc  chronological  retrogressions,  d.  It  seems  therefore 
uKirc  piobable  that  the  second  prophecy  refers  to  the  Israel- 
ite alllictions  in  the  time  of  the  Machabees  and  of  Anti- 
ochus  Ei)iphanes  {c  !()()  I5.<'.),  while  the  third  prediction 
may  apply  to  the  Iioman  inroails  uiuler  Pompey  (r.  (J4  n.c) 
and  those  leaders  who  finally  destroyed  the  royal  city 
Jerusalem  {c.  70  A.D.).  Hut  however  we  may  understand 
the  tlireefold  woe  which  precedes  Micheas"  prophecy,  it  is 
certain  that  the  Messianic  restorer  will  be  born  in  extremely 
troublous  times,  so  that  David's  birth  is  a  perfect  type  of 
the  Messianic  birth. 


PLACE  OF  THE  ME88IAS'  BIRTH.  273 

2.  Anti-Christian  Explanation  of  Micheas'  Proph- 
ecy.— A.  Grotius  unci  a  number  of  Jewish  interpreters 
explain  the  proj^hecy  as  referring  to  Zorobabel  alone,  a. 
Zorobabel  really  was  "  a  ruler  in  Israel."  h.  Zorobabel's 
"going-  forth  is  from  the  beginning"  (53G  B.C.),  since  he 
began  his  political  course  from  the  time  of  the  captivity. 
c.  Zorobabel  really  brought  back  to  the  Lord  "the  remnant 
of  his  brethren,"  leading  them  out  of  the  Babylonian 
captivity  to  the  promised  land  of  Chanaan.  d.  Finally, 
Zorobabel  may  in  a  manner  be  said  to  have  come  forth 
from  Bethlehem,  since  he  was  of  the  royal  family  of  David. 
These  reasons  are  easily  answered,  ex.  If  Zorobabel  may  be 
said  to  be  born  in  Bethlehem  because  he  descends  from 
David's  family,  Moses  may  be  said  to  be  born  in  tlie  Ur  of 
the  Clialdees  because  his  ancestors  lived  there.  The  very 
name  "  Zorobabel  "  indicates  that  Babylon  is  the  real  birth- 
place of  the  hero.  (3.  Nor  does  Zorobabel's  birth  date 
back  to  the  days  of  eternity,  even  tliough  the  period  of  his 
life  coincides  with  the  Hebrew  restoration  from  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity,  y.  As  to  the  "  remnant  "  which  he  led 
back  to  the  city  of  God,  that  expression  has  commonly  a 
meaning  extending:  beyond  the  mere  temporal  welfare  of 
the  nation  or  any  of  its  parts;  6.  and  as  to  the  office  of 
ruler  which  was  held  by  Zorobabel,  it  answers  in  no  manner 
to  the  glorious  description  of  Micheas,  according  to  which 
he  shall  "  be  magnified  even  to  the  ends  of  the  earth." 

B.  AVe  must  add,  however,  that  some  Catholics,  Theo- 
dore of  Mopsuestia  and  Barhebrffius  among  the  number, 
apply  Micheas'  prophecy  to  Zorobabel  in  a  literal  sense, 
while  in  its  typical  sense  they  apply  it  to  the  Messias. 
This  view,  and  another  in  which  the  prophecy  has  an 
initial  fulfilment  in  Zorobabel,  but  finds  its  full  accomplish- 
ment in  the  Messias,  may  be  safely  defended,  though  it 
appears  less  probable  than  the  exj^lanation  which  applies 
the  prediction  wholly  and  entirely  to  tlie  coming  of  Christ. 

C.  Another  rationalistic  interpretation  contends  that  the 
prophecy  must  be  understood  not  of  any  real  and  2)ersonal 


:374  JilHTII  OF  TIIK  MESSIA8. 

hill  of  all  itleul  Mes.sias.  This  view  has  no  special  groiuids 
in  tiie  text  of  the  pro])]iet;  luid,  liypothesis  us  it  is,  it  will 
be  siillieiontly  refuted  by  the  testimonies  which  we  shall 
cite  for  tlie  existence  of  a  Jewish  tradition  concerning  the 
Messianic  interpretation  of  the  ])rophecy. 

3.  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecy.— a.  The 
New  Testament  is  very  exj[)licit  in  a})plyiiig  the  prophecy 
to  the  Messias'  birth:  the  chief  priests  and  the  scribes 
answered  llerod  when  he  inf{uired  about  the  birth-})lace  of 
the  Messias  in  the  words  of  Micheas:  "And  thou  Bethle- 
hem the  land  of  Juda  ..."  (Matt.  ii.  6).  Again,  we 
read  in  Jo.  vii.  42  the  expressions  of  the  populace  gathered 
for  the  feast  at  Jerusalem  :  "  Doth  not  the  Scripture  say  that 
Christ  conieth  of  the  seed  of  David,  and  fioni  Bethlehem, 
the  town  Avhere  David  was  ?''  b.  From  the  Kew  Testament 
passages  thus  far  cited  we  may  immediately  infer  the  exist- 
ence of  a  Jewish  tradition  that  the  Messias  was  to  be 
born  at  Bethlehem.  For  as  ]\Iattliew  testifies  to  this  belief 
existing  among  the  priests  and  scribes,  so  does  John  bear 
witness  to  itc  presence  among  the  common  people.  Tlie 
Ciialdee  paraphrase  of  Mich.  v.  2  shows  the  same  fact. 
For  it  reads:  "  Out  of  thee  shall  come  forth  unto  me  the 
Messias,  that  he  may  exercise  dominion  in  Israel."  Micheas 
V.  3  is  also  referred  to  the  Messias  in  the  'J'almud  (Sanhe- 
drin,  fol.  98,  col.  2):  Kab  said:  "The  son  of  David  will 
not  come  until  the  ungodly  kingdom  has  s})read  itself  for 
a  period  of  nine  uionths  over  Israel  [  Yoma,  fol.  10,  col.  1, 
reads  "over  the  whole  world  "  for  "over  Israel ''];  for  it  is 
said:  Therefore  will  he  give  them  uj)  ..."  A  similar 
Messianic  explanation  is  given  of  i\Iic]i.  v.  5  in  the  Midrash 
on  the  Song  of  Solomon,  viii.  10:  "  Kabbi  Simeon,  the  son  of 
Yochai,  has  taught:  When  you  see  a  Persian  horse  tied  to 
the  graves  of  the  land  of  Israel,  expect  the  footsteps  of  the 
Messias.  AVhat  is  the  reason  ?  And  this  man  shall  be 
tlie  peace  .  .  .  And  who  are  the  seven  sliei)lierds  ?  In 
(lie  midst  is  David;  Adam,  Seth,  Mathiisalato  his  right, 
and   Abraham,  Jacob,  and  Moses  to  his  left.     And  where 


PLACE  OF  THE  ME8SIA8'  BIRTH.  275 

went  Isaac  ?  He  went  and  sat  down  at  the  gate  of  hell,  to 
save  his  children  from  the  judgment  of  hell;  and  the  eight 
principal  men  are:  Jesse,  Saul,  Samuel,  Amos,  Sophonias, 
Ezechias,  Elias,  and  the  king  Messias."  Pesachim,  fol.  54, 
and  Gedarini,  fol.  39,  agree  with  the  above  passages  of  the 
Talmud  in  interpreting  the  prophecy  of  Micheas  in  a  Mes- 
sianic sense.  Kimchi,  Rashi,  and  Abarbanel  too  agree  with 
this  same  explanation,  c.  We  hardly  need  to  say  that  all 
the  Fathers  who  have  touched  this  prophecy  at  all  refer 
it  to  the  Messias,  at  least  in  its  typical  sense  (cf.  Reinke, 
"Mess.  Weissag.,"  iii.  pp.  349-3G4).  Theodore  of  Mop- 
suestia,  who  was  condemned  by  Pope  Vigilius,  is  the  only 
one  to  agree  partially  with  Grotius  and  the  Jewish  com- 
mentators, d.  Finally,  the  other  Messianic  predictions 
fully  agree  with  that  of  Micheas.  In  ])i'oof  of  this  we  may 
point  to  II.  Kings  vii.  14;  Ps.  ii. ;  xliv.;  Is.  vii.  14;  ix.  7, 
etc. 

Mien.  V.  2-14. 
And  tliou,  Bethlehem '  Ephrata,  art  a  '■'  little  one  among  the  thou- 

'  Bethlehem  Ephrata.  The  whole  passage  may  be  divided  into  the 
following  i)arts  :  1.  Israel  will  be  given  up  until  the  aiipearance  of 
the  ruler  (v.  1-3) ;  2.  then  will  Israel  dwell  securely,  since  capable 
men  will  be  there  to  ward  off  danger,  and  the  Assyrian  will  be  tri- 
um]ihantly  repelled  (vv.  4-G) ;  3.  the  remnant  of  Jacob  will  be  like 
beneficent  dew  for  those  nations  that  welcome  it,  but  like  a  tierce 
lion  lor  those  that  resist  it  (vv.  7-9)  ;  4.  the  warlike  implements 
will  be  destroyed,  idolatry  with  its  conse([uences  will  disa])pear  (vv. 
10-14).  E])hrata  is  added  here  to  Bethlehem,  not  seemingly  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  Bethlehem  of  Zabulon,  which  is  only  once  named 
(Jos.  xix.  15),  and  from  which  it  is  suHiciently  distinguished  by  the 
clause  "art  a  little  one  among  the  thousands  of  Juda"(this  latter 
occurs  also  in  Judges  xvii.  7-9  ;  xix.  1,  2,  18  ;  Kuth  i.  1,  3  ;  I.  Kings 
xvii.  12)  ;  but  the  addition  seems  to  allude  either  to  the  former  birth 
of  sorrow  near  Ephrata  ((lien.  xxxv.  19  ;  xlviii.  7),  or  to  the  literal 
meaning  of  the  name.  For  as  Bethlehem  means  "  house  of  bread," 
so  Ephrata  signifies  "  fruitfulness." 

'^  Art  a  little  one  among  the  thousands  of  Juda.  The  tribes  were 
divided  into  thousands,  jjrobably  of  lighting  men,  each  thousand 
having  its  sei)arate  head  (Num.  i.  16;  x.  4).  This  division  continued 
even  after  Israel  had  settled  in  Palestine  (Jos.  xxii.  21,  30  ;  I.  Kings 
X.  19  ;  xxiii.  23).  Places  too  small  to  form  a  thousand  by  themselves 
were  united  with  others  to  make  up  the  number,  as  in  I.  Par.  xxiii.  11 ; 


276  DIltTU  OF  THE  MKSSIAS. 

sands  of  Jiula:   uut  of  tliuo  shall  he  come  forth  unto  me  that  is  to 

four  bn  tliers,  not  having'  luany  sons,  were  counted  as  one  family  or 
house  (llenyst.j.  As  to  Bcthleht'Oi,  it  is  not  mentioned  among  the  pos- 
sessions of  Juda,  and  in  the  division  under  Josue  it  is  wholly  omitted 
(.los.  XV.;  the  LXX.  interi)olate  it  in  Jos.  xv.  Olt).  From  its  situation 
Helhleheiu  can  never  have  been  a  considerable  place  ;  by  its  site  it  is 
rather  calculated  to  be  an  outlying  fortress  guarding  the  approach  to 
Jerusalem  than  a  popuh)us  city.  It  was  fortified  and  held  by  the 
Philistines  in  the  time  of  Saul  (II.  Kings  xxiii.  15),  recovered  from 
them  by  David,  and  was  one  of  the  fifteen  cities  fortitieil  by  Ho 
boam  (II.  Par.  xi.  (5).  Its  inhabitants  were  counted  with  those  of  the 
neighboring  Netophati,  both  i)efore  and  after  the  Captivity  (I.  I'ar. 
ii.  54  ;  II.  Ksdr,  vii.  2G)  ;  but  both  together  amounted  after  the  Cap- 
tivity to  only  ITU  or  !««  men  (I.  Esdr.  ii.  21,  2\  II.  E.sdr.  7,  20).  Even 
at  that  late  period  it  does  not  appear  among  the  possessions  of  Juda 
(II.  Esdr.  xi.  25-30).  It  is  called  a  village  (Jo.  vii.  42),  a  strong  spot 
(Joseph.  Ant.  V.  ii.  8),  a  city  (Uuth  i.  19;  I.  Esdr.  ii.  1,  21  ;  II.  Esdr. 
vii.  0,  20);  but  tht^  name  "  city  "  api)lied  even  to  i)laces  which  hail 
only  100  fighting  men  (Am.  v.  3).  In  the  prophecy  Bethlehem  is 
contrasted  with  tlu;  royal  city  which  would   become  a  tien  of  thieves. 

A  more  serious  diliiculty  is  presented  by  the  discrepancy  between 
this  passage  of  Micheas  and  its  repetition  in  Matt.  ii.  4-0.  For  the 
Evangelist  has  it:  "And  thou  Bethlehem  the  land  of  Juda  art  not 
the  least  among  the  princes  of  Juda."  The  |)rinci[)al  solutions  of 
this  diHiculty  may  be  reduceil  to  the  following  : 

(I.  Pococke  employs  much  learning  and  ingenuity  to  establish  a 
verbal  agivement  between  the  Prophet  and  the  Evangelist  (Not;e  mis- 
ctdl  on  the  Porta  Mosis.  Works,  i.  1;}4-1:55).  lie  follows  Abulwalid, 
ii.  'ranchum,  and  a  Ileb.  Arab.  (Jloss.  in  supposing  that  the  Hebrew 
word  whicli  is  rendered  "a  little  one"  in  Micheas'  prophecy  has 
also  the  opposite  sense  of  "great,"  and  that  it  actually  has  this 
meaning  in  Jer.  xlviii.  4  ;  Soph.  xiii.  7.  Parallel  instances  are  found 
in  the  words  signifying  "holy,"  "soul,"  "  bless,"  "insight."  But, 
(X.  it  is  false  that  the  Hebrew  word  has  the  meaning  "great  "  in  the 
two  pa.ssages  indicated.  (S.  Again,  even  if  the  Hebrew  word  had  the 
mes'.ning  "  great "  as  well  as  "little,"  the  substitution  of  "great" 
inst;'ail  of  "little"'  in  the  prophecy  of  Micheas  does  not  make 
Micheas  agree  with  Matthew.  For  the  proi)hecy  thus  emended 
would  mean:  "And  thou  Bethlehem  Ephrata  art  too  great  to  be 
among  the  thousands  of  Juda." 

b.  Anrjther  solution  of  the  difliculty  resulting  from  the  discrepancy 
between  the  Evangelist  and  the  Prophet  is  based  on  the  Cliahlee,  the 
Syriac,  the  Sejituagint,  and  the  Latin  versions — tin;  Latin  one  being- 
found  in  St.  Augustine  (tie  Civ.  Hei,  xviii.  ;U)).  The  i)rophecy  must 
then  lie  rendered:  "  It  is  little  that  thou  shouldst  be."  But,  a.  even 
this  rendering  does  not  establish  a  verbal  agreement  between  the 
pro|>hecv  and  the  Gospel,  fi.  Besides,  ""'i  is  not  used  in  this 
meaningj  but  'Cl"2  or  b~:  (Is.  xlix.  6),  or  "lip  (II.  Kings  vii.  19); 
and  y,  hnally,  in  this  clause  the  person  sjjoken  of  is  always  ex- 
pressed. 

c.  I'usey  agrees  with  another  class  of  scholars,  who  propose  the  fol- 


PLAGE  OF  THE  31ESSJAS'  BIRTH.  Til 

be  the  ruler  in  Israel,  and  his'  going  forth  is  from  the  beginning, 

lowing  way  of  solving  the  ditliculty  :  a.  St.  Matthew  relates  how 
the  chief  priests  and  scribes,  in  their  answer  to  Herod's  incjuiry 
where  Chiist  should  be  born,  alleged  this  prophecy.  The  F/vangelist 
did  not  correct  their  answer,  which  gives  the  substance  rather  than 
the  exact  words  of  Micheas  ;  for  this  modal  discrepancy  between 
prophecy  and  cpiotation  does  not  alTect  the  object  for  wliich  the  pre- 
diction liad  been  quoted,  (i.  Both  descriptions  of  Bethlehem  are 
true  :  the  prophet  s])ealvs  of  it  as  it  was  in  the  sight  of  men  ;  tlie 
chief  priests  spol^e  of  it  as  it  was  in  the  sight  of  God,  and  as  it  should 
become  by  the  birth  of  the  Messias.  Still,  it  must  seem  strange  that 
the  chief  priests  and  scribes,  who  are  always  represented  as  knowing 
the  Law  and  the  Prophets  by  heart,  make  such  a  change  in  quoting 
Micheas. 

d.  It  seems,  therefore,  necessary  to  add  another  consideration  to  the 
last  solution  of  the  {picstion.  The  chief  priests'  answer  is  notliing 
but  a  clear  rendering  of  what  the  prophet  had  foretold  implicitly  and 
obscurely.  There  is  then  no  difference  of  meaning  between  the  gos- 
])el  and  the  pnjphecy  ;  the  difference  between  them  affects  ouly  the 
manner  in  which  the  prediction  is  expressed  (cf.  Knab.,  Pusey,  Rib., 
Sanct.). 

^  His  going  forth  is  from  the  beginning.  In  the  preceding  claust;  the 
prophet  says,  "out  of  thee  (Bethlehem)  shall  he  come  forth  ;"  lest 
any  one  should  think  that  the  predicted  ruler  would  have  a  temjxjral 
beginning,  the  inspiied  author  now  adds  :  "his  going  forth  is  from 
the  beginning,"  i.e.,  not  from  the  beginning  in  which  (iod  created 
the  heavens  and  the  eartli.but  "  from  the  days  of  eternity."  It  must 
be  confessed  that  the  mere  letter  of  the  Hebrew  text  does  not  neces- 
sarily say  :  "  from  eternity  ;  "  it  may  mean  :  "  from  very  remote  an- 
tiquity." 1.  But  in  the  light  of  further  revelation  we  know  that 
Christ  had  only  two  goings  forth  :  one  temi)oral,  in  Bethlehem  :  one 
eternal,  from  the  Iwsoin  of  his  heavenly  Father.  Now  the  temporal 
birth  of  Christ  is  represented  in  this  ])ro]ihecy  as  still  future  ;  there- 
fore the  present  clause,  which  sjieaks  of  Christ's  birth  as  i)ast,  must 
apply  to  his  eternal  generation.  Christian  interpreters  are  therefore 
right  in  maintaining  that  the  Helirew  expressions  "  from  the  begin- 
ning," "  fr(nu  tlie  days  of  eternity"  in  our  jn'ophecy  refer  to  eternity 
in  its  strict  sense  (cf.  Corluy,  tSpicil.  I.  j).  443;  Pusey,  p.  70;  Kna- 
benb. ,  in  h.  1.,  p.  442). 

2.  But  even  the  Jews  could  in  a  way  understand  the  words  of  Mi- 
cheas as  referring  to  eternity  in  its  strict  sense  ;  for  they  c(nild  know 
from  other  prophecies  that  the  future  Messias  was  to  be  (iod  (Ps.  ii.  7; 
Is.  ix.  (5;  Ps.  xliv.  7  ;  cix.  i]).  Still,  the  phrase  containing  either  both 
its  members  or  only  one  of  them  occurs  at  times  in  the  meaning  of 
"  remote  anticjuity  "  (cf.  Mich.  vii.  14,  20;  Is.  li.  9),  though  in  Prov. 
viii.  23  it  signifies  "  eternity  "  in  the  strict  meaning  of  the  word.  3. 
Hence,  St.  Jerome  explains  our  passage  novs'  (jf  the  eternal  generation 
of  the  son,  now  of  the  son's  temporal  manifestation  in  the  utterances 
of  the  prophets.  4.  St.  Cyril  indicates  a  triple  "going  forth"  of 
the  Messias  :  a.  his  eternal  generation  ;  h.  his  incarnation  ;  c.  his 
eternal  predefinition  as  Saviour  and  Redeemer  of  the  world.     5.  Keil 


278  Binrii  of  tiik  messias. 

from  tlio  (lays  of  ctoriiity.  Tliuruforu  *  will  ho  give  tiiem  up  till 
the  time  wherein  slie '  that  travailetii  .shall  bring  forth,  and  the 

and  Trochon  understand  the  "going  forth  "  as  signifying  the  divine 
operations  by  means  of  which  especially  tlie  angel  of  the  Lord  has 
been  manifested.  Hut  they  cannot  show  that  tiie  Ilel»rew  expression 
ever  has  such  a  meaning,  since  in  tSacri'tl  Scrijiture  the  "going 
forth  "  of  (lod  does  not  mean  his  operati(Hi.  (5.  Jahii,  Schegg,  and 
other  modern  writers  exjjlaiu  the  "going  forth"  of  the  Me.ssias  ^f. 
as  indicating  the  anticpiity  and  the  nol)i]ity  of  his  family,  or  //.  as 
signifying  his  ancient  and  innumerable  titles  to  his  kingship.  Hut 
(X.  the  expression,  whether  in  the  original  or  in  the  versions,  does  not 
convey  the  idea  of  any  title  to  royalty  ;  and  (i.  as  to  the  anti(]uity 
and  nobility  of  the  fanuly  of  the  Messias,  the  family  of  David  and 
the  tribe  of  .luda  are  not  more  ancient  than  tlie  other  tribes  and  fami- 
lies of  Israel.  7.  The  Chaldee  paraphrase  regards  "eternity  "  as  one 
<if  the  Messianic  names;  but  even  according  to  this  view  we  must 
again  iiujuire  whetlun-  the  name  is  taki-n  in  its  strict  sense  or  in  the 
wider  acceptation.  8.  The  jjatristic  testiuu)nies  in  which  the  passage 
is  exjilained  as  referring  to  the  son's  eternal  generation  may  be  seen 
in  Hib.  and  Sanct. 

^  Therefore  will  he  give  them  up.  The  Hebrew  text  of  this  pas.sage 
is  rendered  by  some  autiiors  as  meaning  "  tluu-eton;  will  he  keep 
them,"  i.e.,  not  permit  them  to  be  destroyed  (Jeronu',  'I'heod.,  Hib., 
Sanct.,  8a,  Mar.,  Tir.).  But  ^t.  it  must  be  granted  that  the  Hebrew 
phrase  has  gem-rally  the  uunining  of  "giving  over"  or  "surrender- 
ing "  something  or  some  one  (Jud.  xi.  S);  1.  Kings  viii.  4(5;  xiv.  Ki; 
II.  Par.  XXX.  7,  etc.  ;  cf.  (ies.  Tliesanr.,  ]>.  iCJO).  Ii.  Hesides  this,  the 
context  reipiires  the  nu'aning  of  surrendering  in  the  pi'esent  i)assiigi'  ; 
for  the  calamity  is  distinctly  foretold  to  last  till  the  advent  of  the 
.Messias. 

'••  She  that  travaileth  shall  bring  forth.  Explanations  :  1.  She  that 
travailetii  is  the  Church  (Jeionie,  Theodoret).  For  it.  the  Church  is 
addressed  in  Is.  liv.  1:  "Give  jjraise,  O  thou  barren  that  beare.st 
not"  (cf.  Luke  xxiii.  2\)  \  (>al.  iv.  27);  b.  again,  by  the  travailing  of 
the  ("hurch  shall  the  renuiant  of  his  brethren  be  converted  to  llu; 
children  of  Israel.  2.  She  that  travailetii  is  tin-  collection  of  the 
(ientiles  united  with  Christ,  from  which  union  nmny  children  will  be 
born  to  the  Messias  (Rib.,  Mar.)  3.  Habyhui  is  she  that  travaileth. 
foi'  to  liabylon  will  the  Israelites  be  given  up,  ami  when  that  power 
will  opt-n  its  wond)  aiui  free  its  captives,  then  will  the  remnant  re- 
turn to  its  ))roinised  land  (Calmet). 

Hut  a  it  must  be  noted  that  in  all  these  explanations  the  projdiet 
sliould  luive  lather  said  :  "Till  the  time  wherein  she  that  is  barren 
shall  lirin^  forth."  h.  Hesides,  there  is  no  sullicient  connection  be- 
tween any  of  the  three  events  and  the  i)romised  Hedeemer  to  nudve 
them  Ht  into  the  prediction,  c.  And  tinally,  these  nu-anings  do  not 
suit  the  context  ;  since  the  transition  to  the  words  "  she  that  travail- 
eth shall  bring  forth  "  is  so  abrui)t,  there  nnist  be  (pu-stion  of  a  well- 
known  numner  of  speech.  Now  it  is  clear  that  this  well-known 
jdirase  applied  either  to  Sion  (Mich.  iv.  9,  10),  or  to  the  mother  of  the 
Messias  (.Slid:,  v.  2;  Is.  vii.  14).  The  preceding  explaiuitions  are 
therefore  excluded. 


PLACE  OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH.  279 

remnant  of  his  brethren  shall  be  converted  to  the  children  of 
Israel. 
And  he  ^  shall  stand,  and  feed  in  the  strength  of  the  Lord,  in 

4.  She  that  travaileth  cannot  be  Sion,  because  :  a.  According  to  the 
context  the  phrase  cannot  be  a  mere  figure  for  the  end  of  the  travail ; 
for  then  the  i)assage  would  mean  :  "  He  shall  give  them  up  until  be 
cease  to  give  them  up."  h.  Besides,  Sion  is  spoken  of  in  an  unfigur- 
ative  sense  before  and  after  the  present  passage,  so  that  we  cannot 
have  recourse  to  a  figurative  meaning  in  our  explanation  without 
breaking  with  the  context,  c.  And  finally,  in  Sacred  Scripture 
"  travail  "  taken  figuratively  means  suffering  and  sorrow,  not  the  joy 
following  the  suffering,  d.  Hence,  there  is  question  in  our  pas- 
sage of  a  real  bringing  forth  of  an  individual  or  a  collection  of  indi- 
viduals, a.  Though  Is.  Ixvi.  8  represents  Siou  as  bringing  forth  a 
new  nation,  Miclieas  cannot  refer  to  such  a  birth  in  the  present  pas- 
sage, since  be  speaks  of  an  individual  immediately  before  and  after 
the  phrase  "she  that  travaileth*  shall  bring  forth."  For  there  is 
question  of  his  "going  forth,"  which  in  Hebrew  implies  birth,  and  of 
"  his  brethren  ;"  both  clauses  refer  to  "the  ruler  in  Israel."  Hence, 
the  bringing  forth  too  must  refer  to  the  birth  of  the  ruler  in  Israel. 
(i.  But  Sion  is  nowhere  spoken  of  as  bringing  forth  the  Messias. 

It  follows,  therefore  :  5.  that  she  that  travaileth  is  the  mother  of 
the  Messias.  With  this  explanation  the  whole  passage  becomes 
clear ;  since  the  Messias  must  be  born  in  Bethlehem,  which  is  an  in- 
significant village  in  Juda,  his  family  must  be  reduced  to  poverty 
and  obscurity  before  the  time  of  his  birth  ;  but  this  cannot  hai)pen 
if  the  theocracy  remains  intact,  if  David's  house  continues  to  flourish  ; 
"  therefore  will  he  give  tliem  up  till  the  time  wherein  she  that  trav- 
aileth shall  bring  forth  "  (Ephr.,  Cyr.,  Theoph.,  Alb.,  Lap.,  Men., 
Tir.,  Hitz.,  Schegg,  Keil,  'J'rochon,  Heinke,  Loch,  Corluy,  Knabenb., 
Pusey,  etc.). 

•'  And  he  shall  stand.  The  rest  of  Micheas'  prophecy  describes 
the  consequences  of  the  ruler's  going  forth.  L  The  first  of  these 
has  been  indicated  in  the  last  words  of  the  preceding  paragraph  . 
"  The  remnant  of  his  l)rethren  shall  be  converted,"  which  conversion 
is  according  to  the  Hebrew  text  represented  by  their  return  to  the 
children  of  Israel  in  tbe  promised  land.  2.  The  second  Messianic 
blessing  consists  in  the  Israelites'  peaceful  dwelling  in  the  promised 
land  (which  is  a  type  of  all  si)iritual  blessings).  The  phrase  "they 
shall  be  converted"  (in  verse  4)  must  be  rendered  "they  shall  abide, 
or  dwell."  Even  against  Assyria,  the  most  terrible  of"  Israel's  ene- 
mies, the  Messias  will  raise  u])  an  abundance  of  defenders  (seven  and 
eight,  spiritual  and  temporal  defenders),  who  will  easily  repel  any 
hostile  attacks.  3.  The  third  Messianic  blessing  will  consist  in  Is- 
rael's beneficent  influence  on  all  nations  that  are  friendly  to  it,  and  in 
its  destructive  power  against  all  nations  ((lentiles)  hostile  to  it.  4. 
The  fourth  Messianic  blessing  includes  several  particulars  :  a.  The 
war  implements  and  the  fortified  places  of  the  promised  land  will  be 
destroyed,  so  that  every  reminder  of  a  destructive  war  will  be  re- 
moved, b.  All  sorceries  and  divinations  will  cease,  everyone  confid- 
ing in  the  guidance  of  Israel's  Messianic  ruler,     c.  All  the  groves 


280  Blltril  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

the  height  of  the  name  of  the  Lord  his  God  ;  and  they  shall  be  con- 
verted, for  now  sliall  he  be  magnified  even  to  the  ends  of  the 
eartli.  And  this  man  shall  be  our  peace,  wheii  the  Assyrian  shall 
come  into  our  land,  and  when  he  sliall  set  his  foot  in  (nir  houses, 
and  we  sliall  raise  against  him  seven  shepherds,  and  eight  princi- 
pal men.  And  they  shall  feed  the  land  of  Assyria  with  the  sword, 
and  the  land  of  Nemnxl  with  the  spears  thereof;  and  he  sliall 
deliver  us  from  the  Assyrian  when  he  shall  come  into  our  land, 
and  when  he  shall  tread  in  our  borders. 

And  the  remnants  of  Jacob  shall  be  in  the  midst  of  many 
peoples  as  a  dew  from  the  Lord,  and  as  di'ops  upon  tlie  grass, 
which  waiteth  not  for  man,  nor  tarrieth  for  the  children  of  men. 
And  the  remnant  of  Jacob  shall  be  among  the  Gentiles  in  the 
midst  of  many  peoples  as  a  lion  among  the  beasts  of  the  forest, 
and  as  a  young  lion  among  the  flocks  of  sheep,  who  when  he  sliall 
go  through  and  tread  down,  and  take,  there  is  none  to  deliver. 
Thy  hand  shall  be  lifted  up  over  thy  enemies,  and  all  thy  enemies 
shall  be  cut  off. 

"  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,"  saith  the  Lord,  "  that  I 
will  take  away  thy  horses  out  of  the  midst  of  thee,  and  will  destroy 
thy  chariots.  And  T  will  destroy  the  cities  of  thy  land,  and  will 
throw  down  all  thy  strong  holds,  nnd  T  will  take  away  sorceries 
out  of  thy  hand,  and  there  shall  be  no  divinations  in  thee.  And 
I  will  destroy  thy  graven  things,  and  thy  statues  out  of  the  midst 
of  thee,  and  tliou  shalt  no  more  adore  the  works  of  thy  hands. 
And  I  will  pluck  up  thy  groves  out  of  the  midst  of  thee,  and  will 
crush  thy  cities.  And  I  will  execute  vengeance  in  wrath  and  in 
indignation  among  all  the  nations  that  have  not  given  ear." 

Corollaries. 

1.  The  Messias  will  not  only  be  of  David's  royal  family 
(II.  Kings  vii.  14,  etc.),  but  he  will  also  be  born  in  Havid's 
native  city. 

'.'.  The  Mossias  will,  liowevcr, be  distinct  from  David,  in 
having  aiiotlier  birth  besides  llie  temporal  one  a  going 
forth  from  the  beginning,  from  the  days  of  eternity. 

ami  l('iii|il('s  of  idol  \V(ii'slii|)  will  (lis:i|>|)oar,  so  that  all  will  he  loyal 
to  tlif  (iod  of  Israel,  il  l''vt'ii  tlic  ( Jeiltilcs  who  have  not  yi('l(le<i 
ol)(Mliciicr  to  tlie  i\b'ssiaui('-  king  will  l»o  crushed,  so  tliat  Israel  will 
dwell  seciirelv. 


PLACE  OF  THE  MESSTAS'  BIRTH.  281 

3.  As  David  came  forth  from  Bethlehem  to  take  away 
the  reproach  of  Israel  and  free  his  nation  from  the  Philis- 
tines, so  shall  the  Messias  come  forth  from  Betlilehem  to 
free  his  people  from  its  most  bitter  enemies,  the  dreaded 
Assyrians,  and  to  lead  it  back  into  the  land  of  promise  and 
of  divine  appointment. 

4.  This  liberation  of  Israel  from  the  Assyrians  is  to  take 
place  when  she  that  travaileth  shall  bring  forth;  Micheas 
thus  well  interprets  the  prophecy  of  Isaias  that  treats  of 
the  Virgin  Mother. 


282  BIRTH  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE  TIME   OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH. 

Section  I.    The  Blessing  of  Juda. 
Gen.  xli.v.  8-13. 

Introductiox. 

1.  Time  and  Occasion  of  the  Prophecy.— Noe  before 
his  (loath  pointed  out  tlic  family  of  Sem  as  the  bearer 
of  the  ^lessianic  blessings.  The  Semites  probably  kept 
the  knowletlge  and  love  of  the  true  God  sutticiently 
till  the  time  of  Abraham,  when  it  became  necessary  to 
select  ojie  branch  of  Sem's  descendants  as  the  chosen 
people.  Abraliam  was  so  thoroughly  impressed  with  the 
necessity  of  tbis  step  that  he  sent  away  all  bis  children 
except  Isaac,  whom  he  recognized  as  the  mediator  of  the 
future  Redeemer.  In  the  same  manner  did  Isaac  impart 
the  peculiar  patriarchal  l>lessing  to  only  one  of  his  sons, 
Jacob,  so  that  Esau  was  excluded  from  the  chosen  people 
of  God.  When  we  keep  these  facts  in  view  it  seems  aston- 
ishing that  the  dying  Jacob  does  not  select  any  one  of 
his  sons  and  make  him  exclusively  the  chosen  Messianic 
instrument,  but  blesses  all  his  sons  as  tbe  fathers  of  the 
chosen  people  of  (Jod.  In  place  of  Joseph  he  substitutes 
his  two  eldest  sons,  Ephraim  and  Manasses. 

It  is  also  wortiiy  of  note  that  the  order  in  which  the 
sons'  blessings  are  described  follows  on  the  whole  the 
natural  groujiing  of  Ja(!ol)'s  family.  First  are  mentioned 
the  six  sons  of  Lia;  then  follows  Dan,  the  son  of  Kachcrs 
slave,  liala;  next  come  (Jad  and  Aser,  I  he  sous  of  Lia's  slave, 


Tim  TIME  OF  TUB  MESSIAS'  BIRTH.  283 

Zelpha;  and  these  are  followed  by  Bala's  second  son,  Neph- 
tali,  and  Eachel's  own  children,  Joseph  and  Benjamin  (Gen. 
XXX.).  The  fii'st  three  sons,  Euben,  Simeon,  and  Levi,  have 
given  their  father  cause  for  sorrow  and  reproof:  Ruben  by 
his  illicit  intercourse  with  Bala  (Gen.  xxxv.  22),  and 
Simeon  and  Levi  by  their  cruel  vengeance  on  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Sichem  (Gen.  xxxiv.  14  ff.).  Thus  Juda,  the 
fourth  son,  becomes  the  bearer  of  the  Messianic  promises. 

2.  Place  of  the  Prophecy  in  the  Critical  Analysis 
OF  Genesis. — Driver  (Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  tlie 
Old  Testament,  New  York,  1892,  pp.  IG  ff.)  ascribes  Gen. 
xlix.  1-28  to  J.  Later  on  the  same  author  illustrates  the 
distinction  between  P  and  JE,  and  in  particular  between  J 
and  P,  by  the  blessings  and  promises  that  form  such  a  con- 
spicuous feature  in  Genesis.  The  series  of  promises  ascribed 
to  P  is  contained  in  Gen.  i.  28-30  (Adam);  ix.  1-7  (Noe); 
xvii.  G-8  (Abraham);  xxviii.  3  f.  and  xxxv.  11  f.,  quoted 
in  xlviii.  3  (Jacob).  To  JE  belong  iii.  15  (the  Protevan- 
gelium);  ix.  2G  (Sem);  xii.  1-3  (Abraham);  xiii.  14-17; 
XV.  5,  18;  xviii.  18;  xxii.  15-18;  xxvi.  2-5,  24  (Isaac); 
xxvii.  27-29;  xxviii.  13-15  (Jacob);  xlix.  10  (Juda).  The 
promises  ascribed  to  P  are  said  to  be  cast  in  the  same 
phraseology,  and  to  express  frequently  the  same  thought, 
while  those  assigned  to  J  show  a  greater  variety,  and  even 
the  features  which  they  have  in  common  are  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  the  qualities  that  characterize  the  promises 
ascribed  to  P.  In  the  latter  prophecies  only  Israel  is  con- 
cerned, while  the  predictions  assigned  to  J  regard  other 
natioiis  too.  However  ingeniously  this  analysis  may  be 
made,  it  can  claim  nothing  beyond  the  merit  of  a  skilful 
hypothesis — not,  indeed,  in  the  sense  of  the  modern  crit- 
ics, but  only  in  so  far  as  it  jioints  out  the  various  sources 
from  which  Moses  may  have  written  the  Book  of  Genesis. 

The  other  arguments  that  are  usually  advanced  as 
proving  the  sjiurious  character  of  Jacob's  dying  blessing 
may  be  reduced  to  the  following  heads:  a.  It  contains 
manifest  references  to  future  events;  b.  such  a  lofty  strain 


284  BIRTII  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

of  poetry  unci  sucli  ricli  imugery  ooiild  not  luive  2)rocec(lcd 
from  u  siii)(.'r;innu;ite(l  old  man  on  the  brink  of  tlie  grave; 
c.  the  blessing  promised  by  Jacob  could  not  have  been 
handed  down  verbatim  to  the  time  of  Moses  (Heinrichs, 
Vater,  De  Wette,  Fricdrich,  Jnsti,  Bleek,  etc.).  liut  all 
these  exceptions,  though  they  rest  on  such  groat  authority, 
are  hardly  solid  enough  to  rciuler  the  authenticity  of 
Jacob's  blessing  doubtful,  a.  P'or  the  first  reason  sup- 
poses n  priori,  as  it  were,  that  the  foreknowledge  of  the 
future  is  impossible,  either  because  God  himself  does  not 
know  the  future  or  because  he  cannot  make  it  known  to 
creatures.  Both  of  these  Jissumptions  we  deny.  /i.  As  to 
the  second  exception,  we  need  only  call  attention  to  the 
fact  that  Jacob  is  su2)])osed  to  have  uttered  the  passage 
under  tlie  influence  of  divine  iiis])iration.  which  might 
easily  supply  any  deficiency  in  the  human  instrument. 
Besides,  the  simplicity  of  the  patriarchs  would  naturally 
tend  to  reiulor  their  imagination  more  vivid  and  more  ca- 
l)able  of  poetic  concei)tion.  The  Arabian  j^oet  Lel)id,  who 
reached  the  age  of  157  years,  composed  a  poem  even  on  his 
death-bed.  y.  Before  the  time  of  "  Mohammed"  the  j)oets 
of  his  country  were  often  called  upon  to  recite  long  poetic 
pieces  extempore,  since  the  art  of  writing  Avas  at  that 
period  not  practised  among  the  Arab  tribes.  The  poet 
Ilareth,  e.g.,  recited  extempore  his  "  Moallakah,"  which  is 
still  extant,  when  he  was  135  years  old.  These  facts, 
together  with  the  consideration  that  before  the  general 
introduction  of  writing  man's  memory  was  more  faithful 
because  more  practised,  and  that  in  the  case  of  inspired 
language  the  same  Spirit  who  had  inspired  it  would  also 
give  ])ower  to  preserve  it,  are  suilicient  ansAvers  to  the  third 
exeejition  (llcngstonl).,  Cliristol.  i.  j>.  51). 

3.  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecy.— The  Mes- 
sianic a])])licali<»n  of  Jacol)'s  prophecy  concerning  Juda 
appears:  1.  In  the  Apocalypse  v.  5:  "And  one  of  the 
auf'ionts  said  to  me:  AVeop  not;  behold  the  lion  of  the 
tril)e  of  Juda,  the  root  of  David,  bath  prevailed  to  open 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESS  I  AS'  BIRTH.  285 

the  book,  and  to  loose  the  seven  seals  thereof."  The  lion 
of  the  tribe  of  Juda  is  therefore  identical  with  the  Messias; 
but  the  same  is  the  subject  of  Jacob's  prediction. 

2.  Another  Messianic  note  we  see  in  the  words  of  the 
prophecy,  "  and  he  shall  be  the  expectation  of  the  nations." 
It  is  true  that  the  Hebrew  text  reads  here:  "And  to  him 
the  obedience  of  the  nations."  But  in  either  case  the 
passage  contains  an  evident  reference  to  the  Messias,  who 
is  surely  the  woman's  seed  that  is  to  crush  the  serpent's 
head,  and  the  patriarchal  seed  in  whom  all  the  nations 
shall  be  blessed.  In  all  truth,  then,  may  he  be  called  the 
expectation  of  the  nations.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Mes- 
sias is  described  as  the  star  of  Jacob  and  the  sceptre  which 
shall  smite  the  princes  of  Moab,  as  the  great  theocratic 
king  to  whom  the  nations  shall  belong  as  his  inheritance. 
He  is  therefore  truly  called  "he  to  whom  shall  be  the 
obedience  of  the  nations  "  (cf.  Ps.  Ixxxv.  (Ixxxvi.)  9;  Is.  ii. 
2;  Ps.  xxi.  (xxii.)  28,  29;  Is.  liii.  10;  Agg.  ii.  7,  8;  MaL  i. 
11;  Ps.  ii.  7,  8;  Luke  ii.  29-32).  Besides  all  this,  Christ 
hiiuself  repeatedly  testified  of  himself  that  all  power  had 
been  given  him  (Matt,  xxviii.  18;  xxvi.  13;  Mark  xvi.  15; 
Rom.  XV.  9-12). 

3.  The  Messianic  character  of  Jacob's  blessing  imparted 
to  Juda  is  also  evident  from  the  tradition  of  the  Samari- 
tans. In  the  year  1G85  MofParidj,  the  chief  of  the  Samari- 
tans, wrote  to  England :  "  You  have  spoken  about  the  great 
prophet  of  whom  the  Lord  said  to  Moses:  'I  will  raise  uji 
a  prophet.  .  .  .  He  it  is  whom  the  nations  will  obey.' " 
Now  they  openly  declared  and  admitted  that  this  projihet 
was  the  Messias  (Ilathab).  Cf.  Notices  et  extraits  des 
manuscrits  de  la  Bibliotheque  du  Roi,  t.  xii.,  p.  28,  209; 
Barges,  Les  Samaritains  de  Naplouse,  p.  91;  Precis  histo- 
riques,  1873,  pji.  442-444. 

4.  Christian  tradition  too  is  unanimous  in  exjjluiuiiig 
Juda's  prophecy  of  the  future  Messias.  References  to  tlic 
patristic  testimonies  are  found  in  Kil])er's  Analysis  Biblica 
(editio  altera,  Lutetian  Parisiorum,  185G,  I.  pj).  39  f.). 


28(5  niRTII  OF  THE  MESSTAS. 

5.  Jewish  and  I{;il)biiiic  tnid  it  ion  is  ciiiuill}- pronounced 
in  favor  of  the  Messianic  character  of  Jnda's  prediction. 
a.  Verse  lu.  The  Targiuu  Onkelos  Inis  the  paraplirase: 
"Until  that  Messias  shall  come  "whose  is  the  kingdom."" 
The  Jerusalem  Targum  renders:  '•'  Uiitil  tho  time  that  king 
Messias  shall  come  whose  is  tlio  kingdom."  The  Targum 
Jonathan  reads:  "Until  the  time  that  king  Messias  the 
youngest  of  his  children  shall  come."  The  Midrash  Here- 
shith  lJal)l)a  (sect.  DS,  09),  the  Midrash  Echa  (i.e.,  on 
Ijaiiu'iit.  i.  l(i),  refer  the  expression  Shiloh  to  the  Messias. 
That  Sliiloh  was  regarded  as  the  name  of  the  Messias  is 
attested  hy  the  following  Talmudic  passage  (Sanhedrin, 
fol.  98,  col.  2) :  "  What  is  his  name  ?  They  of  the  school 
of  l\ab  Shila  said:  His  name  is  Shiloh,  as  it  is  written, 
Until  Shiloh  come.  But  those  of  the  school  of  IJabbi 
Yanai  said:  His  name  is  Yinon,  as  it  is  said.  Before 
the  sun  was,  his  name  was  Yinon  (Ps.  Ixxii.  11).  They 
of  the  school  of  Ilanina  said:  Ilanina  is  his  name,  as  it 
is  said,  AVhere  I  will  not  show  you  favor  (Jer.  xvi.  13). 
And  some  say:  His  name  is  Menachem,  the  son  of  Eze- 
chias,  as  it  is  said,  Because  he  keeps  far  from  me  the 
Comforter,  who  refreshes  ray  soul  (Lam.  i.  10).  The 
Rabbis  say:  His  name  is  the  leper  of  the  house  of  Rabbi, 
as  it  is  said.  Surely  he  hath  borne  our  sickness,  ami  en- 
dured the  burden  of  our  pains,  yet  we  did  esteem  him 
stricken,  smitten  of  God  and  afflicted  "  (Is.  liii.  4).  Bere- 
shith  Rabba  (sect.  99)  gives  a  Messianic  meaning  to  the 
words.  And  he  sliidl  be  the  expectation  of  the  nations: 
"The  same  is  meant  to  whom  the  prophecy  refers,  And  in 
that  day  there  kIimII  be  a  root  of  Jesse,  which  shall  staml 
for  an  ensign  of  the  ])eo])le  "  (Is.  xi,  10). 

h.  IVy.sr'  // is  also  explained  Messianically.  IMie  Jerusa- 
lem Targum  says:  "  How  fair  is  King  Messias,  who  is  here- 
after to  arise  from  the  house  of  Juda!  He  girdeth  uj)  his 
loins,  and  goes  forth  to  battle  against  his  foes,  smiting 
kings  with  their  i)rinces,  reddi-ning  their  rivers  with  the 
blood   of   their  slain,  and  whitening  his  valleys  with   the 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MES8IAS'  BIRTH.  287 

fatness  of  their  strength;  his  garments  are  clipped  in  blood; 
he  is  like  to  the  treader  of  grapes."  The  Targuni  Jona- 
than speaks  almost  in  the  same  words.  Bereshith  Rabha 
(sect.  99)  remarks  on  the  words,  And  his  ass,  0  my  son,  to 
the  vine:  "This  refers  to  him  of  Avhom  it  is  said,  Lowly 
and  riding  njion  an  ass"  (Zach.  ix.  9).  In  the  Talmud 
(Berachoth,  fol.  57,  col.  1)  it  is  said :  "  Whoever  sees  a  vine 
in  his  dream  will  see  the  Messias,  because  it  is  written. 
And  his  ass,  0  my  son,  to  the  vine."  Bereshith  Rabba 
(98)  explains  the  words.  He  shall  wash  his  robe  in  wine, 
as  moaning  the  teaching  of  the  law  to  Israel,  and  those 
other  words,  His  garment  in  the  blood  of  the  grape,  as 
signifying  that  he  would  bring  them  back  from  their  er- 
rors. One  of  the  Rabbis,  however,  expresses  the  opinion 
that  Israel  would  not  require  to  be  taught  by  the  king  IMes- 
sias  in  the  latter  days,  since  it  was  written  (Is.  xi.  10): 
Him  the  Gentiles  shall  beseech.  If  this  be  so,  why  will 
the  Messias  come,  and  what  will  he  do  to  the  congregation 
of  Israel  ?  He  will  redeem  Israel,  and  give  them  thirty 
commandments,  according  to  Zacharias  xi.  13.  Thus  far 
then  the  Messianic  application  of  Jacob's  jn'ophecy  is 
clearly  contained  in  Rabbinic  tradition, 

c.  Verse  12.  The  Jerusalem  Targum  renders  what  is 
translated  in  our  version  "his  eyes  are  more  beautiful  than 
Avine  "  in  this  manner.  "  How  fair  are  the  eyes  of  King 
Messias  to  look  upon!  more  beautiful  than  the  vine,  purer 
than  to  behold  with  them  the  uncovering  of  nakedness, 
and  the  shedding  of  innocent  blood;  his  teeth  are  more 
skilful  in  the  law  than  to  eat  with  them  deeds  of  violence 
and  rapine."  The  Targum  Jonathan  almost  verbally 
agrees  with  this  rendering.  In  verse  IS  the  Messianic  ap- 
plication of  verse  12  is  repeated,  although  not  in  express 
words. 

d.  Verse  9,  The  exjn-ession  "lion's  whelp"  is  applied  to 
the  Messias  in  Yalkut  (100)  no  less  than  five  times;  Bere- 
shith Rabba  (98)  refers  also  the  term  "thou  hast  couched" 
to  the  Messias.     If  further  argument  were  needed  to  show 


^88  niRTll   OF  THE  MKHISIAS. 

that  Ktibbiiiic  tracHtioii  interprets  Jjicob's  blessing  of  Jnda 
Messianically,  we  ini<fbt  refer  to  tlie  Targiun  Pseudo-Jona- 
than and  Ik'reshith  Kabba  (98)  on  verse  1  of  Gen.  xlix. 
The  Targum  notes  that  the  end  for  wliich  tlie  Messias 
would  come  was  not  revealed  to  Jacob,  while  the  Mid  rash 
says  of  Jacob  and  Daniel  (xii.  4)  that  they  saw  the  end, 
and  that  it  was  afterwards  hid  from  them. 

CiKX.    XLIX.   8-12. 

'  Juda,  tlicc  shall  thy  Inx'thren  praise, 

Thy  liand  sliall  be  on  ^  the  necks  of  thy  encniics, 

The  sons  of  tliy  father  shall  bow  down  to  thee. 

Juda  is  a  '  lion's  whelp, 

To  the  prey  my  sou  thou  art  gone  up  ; 

Resting  thou  hast  couched  as  a  lion, 

And  as  a  lioness,  who  shall  rouse  him  ? 

'  Juda.  When  Lia  brought  forth  Juda,  she  said  :  Now  will  I  praise 
the  Ijord,  and  therefore  she  called  bis  name  Juda  ((Jen.  xxix.  80). 
Jacob  alludes  to  this  ])riniitive  meaning  of  Juda's  name,  implying 
only  tiiat  Juda's  brethren  would  take  up  the  strain  of  I/ui's  ])raise. 
His  noble  behavior  at  the  time  when  iiis  brethren  sold  Joseph 
(xxxvii.  2'-2,  20),  and  again  when  Benjamin  was  in  apparent  danger 
(xliv.  18-;54)  rendered  him  worthy  to  be  preferred  to  the  incestuous 
liuben  and  the  cruel  Levi  and  Simeon. 

-  On  the  necks  of  thy  enemies.  Juda  is  to  be  victorious  over  his  ene- 
mies and  the  ii-ading  trii)r  in  Israel,  his  brethren  being  obliged  to  do 
him  homage.  Juda's  elevation  to  be  the  royal  tribe,  and  David's 
signal  victoi'ies  over  his  enemies  fulfilled  these  two  |)romises,  \)ax- 
tially  at  least,  while  both  obtained  their  linal  accomplishment  in  the 
victory  and  the  royal  dignity  of  the  Messias. 

^A  lion's  whelp.  Juda  is  thus  compared  with  the  most  powerful 
and  the  most  royal  of  beasts — with  the  lion  retiring  to  the  mountains 
after  devouring  his  i)rey.  The  standard  of  the  tribe  of  .luda  was  a 
lion,  and  was  probably  adopted  in  accordance  with  this  prophecy. 
We  need  not  notici^  the  opinion  of  several  Habbinic  writers  that 
Juda  intended  to  retire  on  lu'aring  the  evil  ])re(lictions  which  Jacob 
uttered  regarding  his  tlin hh'st  sons,  but  that  the  dyiug  father  re- 
tained him,  and  brokt;  forth  into  the  present  strain  of  favorable  ])re- 
(lictious.  (Jthers  again  maintain  that  Ju<la  had  made  a  confession  of 
his  intercourse  with  'I'hamar  ((Jen.  xxxviii.),  and  that  his  father 
jiraised  and  blessed  him  on  account  of  his  sincere  penitence  and  hu- 
mility. 

*  The  sceptre.  The  verb  following  "  scei)tre,y  as  it  stands  in  the 
lii'ltpfw  text,  means  either  "shall  not  depart"  or  "sliall  not  be 
wanting."  The  context  determines  which  of  these  significations  is 
preferable.      Now  iu  the  context  we  read  the  noun  "  shebeth,"  which 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESS  I  AS'  BIRTH.  289 

The  *  sceptre  shall  not  l)e  taken  away  from  Juda, 
Nor  ^  a  ruler  from  *  his  thigh, 

signifies  either  "  tribe  "or  "  sceptre."  Hence  we  have  the  two  dif- 
ferent renderings  :  "a  tribe  descending  from  Juda  shall  not  be  want- 
ing," and  "  a  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Juda." 

Patrizi  defends  the  former  of  these  two  renderings  for  the  following 
reasons:  1.  The  Hebrew  word  "  shebeth  "  occurs  160  times  in  the 
meaning  "  tribe,"  only  40  times  in  the  signification  of  "  sceptre."  3. 
In  the  very  chapter  to  which  our  prophecy  belongs,  "shebeth"  sig- 
nifies twice  "  tribe  "  (vv.  10,  28)  ;  hence  it  is  probable  that  it  has  the 
same  meaning  in  v.  10.  8.  The  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  becomes 
clearer  if  we  translate  "  shebeth  "  by  "  tribe  "  than  if  we  render  it 
by  "sceptre."  For  the  distinction  between  the  Jewish  tribes  has 
been  forgotten  long  ago.  4.  H"  we  translate  "  tribe  "  we  obtain  a 
beautiful  climax  in  the  context,  which  is  lost  if  we  give  the  other 
meaning  to  "shebeth."  5.  If  we  render  "royal  sceptre,"  the 
])rophecy  does  not  predict  anything  that  is  peculiar  to  Juda  (cf.  Gen. 
xlix.  28),  since  the  royal  powt-r  lias  belonged  to  the  other  tribes  of 
Israel  as  well  as  to  Juda.  0.  St.  Basil  })refers  the  rendering  "  tribe  " 
to  that  of  "  sceptre  "  (ad.  Amphiloch.  ep.  286,  al.  391). 

But  a.  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  authority  of  only  one  Father  in 
a  matter  so  much  disputed  as  the  present  passage  is  of  very  little 
weight,  h.  On  the  other  hand,  the  climax  of  the  passage  is  not 
entirely  lost,  even  if  we  translate  "  shebeth  "  by  "  sceptre."  For  the 
words  "  from  his  thigh  "  add  clearness  and  emi)hasis  to  the  preced- 
ing line.  However,  we  cannot  assume  a.  priori  that  the  passage 
must  have  such  a  climax,  c.  As  to  the  frequency  of  "  shebeth 's  " 
meaning  "tribe,"  we  fully  grant  the  fact,  but  deny  that  therefore 
"  shebeth  "  must  have  always  such  a  signification,  even  where  the 
context  calls  for  another  meaning,  d.  Though  other  tribes  too  have 
wielded  the  royal  power  in  Israel,  Juda  has  so  far  outstripped  them 
all  that  the  Jews  generally  looked  upon  David  and  Solomon  as  ideal 
representatives  of  the  theocracy.  And  this  power  has  as  completely 
been  taken  away  from  Juda  as  the  distinction  between  the  different 
tribes  has  disappeared. 

Since  then  Card.  Patrizi's  arguments  are  not  altogether  unanswer- 
able, we  may  add  a  few  positive  reasons  why  the  rendering  "  scejitre  " 
should  be  preferred  totha:  of  "  tribe."  1.  The  LXX.  renders  "  ruler," 
Aquilas  "  sceptre,"  Symmachus  "  royal  power,"  Onkelos  "  one  exer- 
cising power,"  Jonathan  "  kings  and  i)rinces,"  the  Jerusalem  Targum 
"kings,"  the  Arabian  version  "  rod  ;  "  the  Syriac  and  the  Samaritan 
versions  are  ambiguous  in  their  renderings,  but  they  do  not  favor  the 
meaning  "tribe  "  to  the  exclusion  of  the  signification  "  sceptre."  2. 
The  context  of  our  pa.ssage  favors  the  rendering  "  sceptre  "  rather 
than  "tribe."  For  its  jtarallel  term  is  rendered  "ruler."  3.  We 
must  also  call  attention  to  the  similar  pa.ssages  Num.  xxiv.  17  and 
Zach.  X.  11,  in  which  "shebeth"  is  translated  "rod"  or  "sceptre." 
4.  If  "shebeth"  is  rendered  "tribe,"  we  must  translate  the  whoh; 
pas.sage  "  Juda's  tribe  shall  not  cease  ;"  but  in  the  Hebrew  te.xt  we 
read  "  the  shebeth  from  Juda,"  which  would  be  an  uncommon  con- 
struction to  express  a  tribe  descending  from  Juda. 


290  iniiTll  OF  THE  MMSSIAS. 

Till '  ho  conic  that  is  "to  be  sent, 

Tlic  word  "  scrptrt',"  orif^^inally  dfnotiiij,^  a  staff  of  wood,  a  strong? 
rod  taken  froumtrLH-aud  jjeulfd  as  a  wand,  is  used — 1.  For  tlic  rod  of 
correction  (Num.  xxiv.  17;  Is.  i.x.  4;  Ps.  cxxiv.  (cxxv.);{;  II.  Kings  vii. 
14,  etc.)  ;  2.  For  the  staff  of  a  shepherd  (Lev.  xxvii.  ;}2  ;  I's.  xxii. 
(xxiii.)  4) ;  3.  For  the  sceptre  of  royalty  (I'.s.  xliv.  (xlv.)  7  ;  Is.  xiv.  5  ; 
Ezech.  xix.  11  ;  Am.  i.  T),  fS  ;  Zach.  x.  11).  This  last  meaning  may 
be  illustrated  by  II.  11,  4(),  101  In  the  jiresent  passage  the  nmaning 
v/liich  implies  or  at  least  signifies  the  royal  power  appears  to  deservo 
de('i(h'd  iiifl'iTence. 

*  Nor  a  ruler.     The  term  "  ruler,"  in  Hebrew  "p'^UlZ  (niechoqe(i\  is 

l)arallel  to  the  term  "sceptre."  Considered  grammatically,  it  is  the 
particii)le  I'oel  of  the  verbppn,  and  signifies  therefore  "  a  legislator  " 
or  the  legislator's  ensign,  "  a  staff  of  authority."  In  Deut.  xxxiii.  21, 
where  the  term  "  mechoqeij "  occurs,  its  meaning  is  not  clear;  in 
Num.  xxi.  18  the  meaning  "rod"  or  "staff"  is  i)referable  ;  in 
ludges  V.  14  the  term  is  rightly  rendered  "jjrinces;"  in  Is.  xxxiii. 
22  its  meaning  "  legislator"  is  the  most  obvious.  In  Ps.  lix.  (Ix.)  9 
and  cvii.  (cviii.)  D  the  Vulgate  reiulers  the  term  hy  "  leader,"  but  the 
division  of  tlu;  lines  appears  to  lie  changed  from  what  it  must  hav«! 
been  in  tht^  original  rt  ading.  It  ought  to  read  :  "  .  .  .  Kphraim  is 
the  strength  of  my  head,  Juda  is  the  staff  (on  wliich  I  lean)."  Both 
meanings  of  "  niecho(ie(|  "  occur  therefore  in  Sacred  Scrijiture.  And 
since  the  word  is  in  the  j)resent  i)assage  i)arallel  to  "sheheth,"  the 
signification  "  ruler's  staff  "  seems  to  be  preferable. 

We  caniu)t  omit  to  mention  tliat  Card.  Patrizi  offers  a  number  of 
»!Xcei)tions  to  this  interjjretation.  <i.  First,  he  calls  attention  to  the 
fact  that  it  is  lu'w  ;  h.  then  he  insists  on  the  iniprohahility  that  the 
same  word  "  mecho(|eq  "  sliould  signify  "  h'gislator  "  and  "  statT  of 
power."  c.  Besides,  the  Cardinal  does  not  admit  tlie  i)ai'allelism 
between  the  meaning  "ruler's  staff"  and  the  preceding  "sludieth," 
since  he  reiulers  the  latter  expression  by  "tril)e."  d.  In  Num.  xxi. 
18  he  translates  "  mecluxjeci  "  by  legislator,  and  in  Ps.  lix.  (Ix  )  9  ho 
paraphrases  the  passage  :  "  Ephraim's  invincible  tnxjjjs,  in  whom  1 
fully  trust,  and  supreme  leaders  of  Juda."  It  must,  however,  bo 
granted  that  none  of  these  excei)tions  creates  any  great  difficulty,  so 
that  the  fmcgniiig  explanation  nuiy  be  safely  followed. 

''  From  his  thigh.  The  Ilehrtnv  t(^xt  reads  "  from  hetweun  his  feet," 
"  mibben  raglav."  Hence  interpreters  disagree  regarding  the  jireciso 
meaning  of  the  passage  :  1.  Some  think  that  the  metai)hor  of  the 
jjreceding  verse  is  continued  in  the  ])resent,  so  that  we  must  think  of 
.luda's  lion  holding  the  sceptre  between  his  claws.  But  it  seems 
more  natural  to  eiul  the  nu>taphor  with  the  iireceding  verse.  2. 
Others  have  therefore  interpreted  the  expression  as  signifying  "  from 
his  seed  "  or  "  from  his  ()ffs|iriiig."  <i.  Tin-  parallel  passage  in  Deut. 
xxviii.  57, />.  as  well  as  the  rendering  in  the  Targumim  (Onkelos, 
Jonathan,  Jerusalem)  fav<)rs  this  explanati(Ui.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
a.  the  Hebrew  exjyression  commonly  expresses  contempt  when  it 
nwans  "from  liis  si-ed,"  while  in  the  present  jiassage  it  imjilii's  the 
highest  blessing  ;  /i.  again,  according  to  this  explamition  the  clause 
•■  from   butweeu  his  feet"  would  have  to  bo  referreil   to   the  nouu 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'   BIRTH.  291 

And  he  shall  be  the  'expectation  of  the  nations. 

"ruler"  or  "tribe  "  rather  than  to  the  verb  "  shall  not  be  taken  "  or 
"shall  not  depart."  Now  in  the  preceding  piiragrapli  we  have 
shown  that  the  renderings  "ruler"  and  "tribe"  are  less  probable 
than  "sceptre  "and  "ruler's  staff."  3.  Interpreters  have  therefore 
offered  a  third  explanation,  which  appears  to  be  more  satisfactory 
than  either  of  the  former  two.  It  may  be  seen  in  the  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions that  the  kings,  when  seated  on  the  throne,  were  accus- 
tomed to  hold  their  sceptre  between  their  feet.  This  fact  has  sup- 
plied the  dying  patriarch  with  the  figure  which  he  applies  to  Juda. 

■"  Till  he  come.  The  Hebrew  conjunction  "'ad-ki,"  rendered  "  till," 
is  composite;  C'ajetan,  with  a  few  others,  has  interpreted  its 
parts  separately,  rendering  \id  by  "  for  ever"  and  ki  by  "because." 
Hence  we  obtain  the  reading:  "the  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from 
Juda,  nor  the  ruler's  staif  from  between  his  feet,  for  ever,  because 
he  shall  come  that  is  to  be  sent  ..."  But  it  must  be  noted  a.  that 
in  the  Hebrew  text  \id  is  separated  from  what  precedes  by  Athnach, 
one  of  the  greatest  disjunctive  accents  ;  b.  besides, 'cf(/ is  never  taken 
adverbially  in  any  part  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  especially  when  it 
accompanies  ki  it  has  always  the  meaning  "  until."  c.  Cajetan's  in- 
terpretation has  no  ancient  authority  in  its  favor  ;  for  Onkeios  adds 
"  for  ever  "  as  a  mere  gloss,  since  he  has  immediately  after  it  the  com- 
mon rendering  "  until." 

>*  That  is  to  be  sent.  These  words  render  the  Hebrew  expression 
"shiloh,"  which  has  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  interpreters  consid- 
erably.    The   reading    "shiloh"    /r;::"'C'\    is   found   in    all    Hebrew 

codices,  except  40,  two  of  which  read  "  shilov  "  (ib'^"d\  and  thirty- 
eight  read  "  shelloh  "  (rib'vi;).  All  printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew 
text,  excepting  one,  favor  the  reading  "shiloh."  a.  Judging  then 
from  the  great  care  with  which  the  Jews  have  always  been  accus- 
tomed to  guard  the  text  of  Scripture,  it  must  be  inferred  that 
"  shiloh"  is  the  proper  reading  in  the  present  i)assage.  h.  The  fact 
that  some  of  the  old  translations  suppose  the  reading  "  shelloh  "  may 
be  exphxined  as  a  consequence  of  the  great  freedom  with  which  they 
often  render  the  original,  c.  In  the  present  instance  they  had  an  ad- 
ditional motive  U>v  their  free  rendering,  because  Ezech.  xxi.  32  sug- 
gests the  meaning  of  "  shelloh."  d.  Finally,  the  Hebrew  consonan- 
tal text  should  not  be  changed  without  the  most  serious  reasons 
re(iuiring  such  an  emendation.  The  relative  value  of  these  argu- 
ments will  appear  in  all  its  clearness  when  we  shall  speak  about  the 
reading  "  shelloh." 

Supposing,  then,  for  the  present  "  shiloh  "  to  be  the  correct  reading, 
it  follows — 1.  that  we  must  look  upon  the  rendering  of  St.  Jerome  as 
defective  ;  for  ' '  he  that  is  to  be  sent "  requires  in  the  Hebrew  text 
"shaluach,"  a  reading  which  rests  on  no  authority.  2.  Bickell, 
Lagarde,  Flunk,  etc.,  suppose  that  "shiloh"  is  contracted  out  of 
"sh'iloh"  (^nz'^NCV  the  Chaldee  passive  participle  followed  by  the 
pronominal  affix  "oh";  hence  they  rightly  translate  "his  desired 
<me."  Though  this  explanation  is  new,  it  does  not  lack  intrinsic  or 
extrinsic  probability.     3.   The  rendering  "  his  sou,"  as  if  "  shiloh 


292  BIRTH  OF  THE  ME8SIAS. 

Tying  '*'  liis  foal  to  the  vineyard, 

consisted  of  "sliil,"  son,  and  tbo  pronominal  affix  "  oli  "  is  confined 
to  I's.  Jonathan  and  a  few  of  his  followers,  l)ut  cannot  be  defended 
by  any  probal)le  argument  (cf.  Deiitzsch,  Neuer  Comm.,  j).  519). 
There  is  no  word  "  shil  "  meaning  "  son  "  in  the  Hebrew  language. 
4.  Deiitzsch,  Kurtz,  and  the  Rationalists  generally  render  "  shiloh  " 
"to  Silo."  According  to  this  view  the  whole  passage  reads:  "the 
sceptre  shall  not  be  taken  from  Juda,  nor  the  ruler's  staif  from  between 
liis  feet,  till  he  come  to  iSilo."  The  reasons  for  this  rendering  may 
he  reduced  to  the  i.)llowing  :  a.  "  Shiloh  "  usually  signifies  "  Silo," 
and  in  1.  Kings  iv.  12  (cf.  Jos.  xviii.  9  ;  Judg.  xxi.  12  ;  I.  Kings  i. 
21-1.  Kings  iv,  4)  we  have  a  passage,  almost  verbatim  parallel 
to  ours,  which  must  be  rendered  "  and  he  came  to  Silo  ;"  b.  till  the 
ark  of  the  Lord  was  deposited  in  Silo,  Juda  held  the  primacy  among 
the  Israelite  tril)es  (cf.  Num.  i.,  xxvi.;  ii.  3-9;  x.  14;  vii.  12;  Jos. 
XV.  1,  and  the  history  of  the  earliest  kings)  ;  c.  this  coming  to  Silo 
constitutes  such  an  imi)ortant  event  in  the  Israelite  history  that  it 
cannot  surprise  us  if  it  has  been  the  terminus  of  Jacob's  vision  (cf. 
Jos.  xviii.  1). 

But  we  find,  on  the  other  Land,  that  very  weighty  reasons  militate 
against  this  exphmation.  a.  The  earliest  name  of  the  city  was  not 
Silo,  but  Thaanath,  so  that  Hengstenberg  looks  ujxin  the  name 
Silo  as  given  to  the  city  in  memory  of  Jacob's  prophecy  (this  is 
denied  l)y  Deiitzsch,  1.  c.  pp.  520,  o21).  (i.  The  i)rimacy  of  Juda  till 
the  period  indicated  was  either  an  h(morary  one  or  it  was  certainly 
not  continuous,  since  during  the  same  period  we  find  Moses  the 
Levite  and  Josue  the  Ephraimite  exercising  supreme  authority. 
y.  Besides  the  fact  that  all  Jewish  and  Christian  tradition  contra- 
dicts such  an  interpretation,  it  must  also  be  ob.served  that  the 
Chanaanites,  wlio  are  said  to  have  obeyed  Juda,  may  just  as  well  be 
represented  as  obedient  to  the  other  tribes  of  Israel,  so  that  such  au 
obedience  means  nothing  especially  favorable  to  Juda. 

5.  Others  again  look  upon  "  shiloli  "  as  a  common  noun,  meaning 
"ipiiet,"  "  trancpiillity."  According  to  this  interpretation  we  must 
render  the  passage:  "the  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Juda,  nor 
the  ruler's  staff  from  between  his  feet,  till  tran(]uillity  or  peace 
c«)mes "  (cf.  I.  Par.  xxii.  9;  Eph.  ii.  14;  Is.  ix.  5;  Mich.  v.  5). 
The  reason  on  which  this  interpretation  rests  is  based  on  the  analo- 
gous derivation  of  other  nouns  from  verbs;  e.g.,  "  kidor "  from 
"  kadar."  Hut,  on  the  other  hiind,  it  is  objected  tliat  such  forms  are 
derived  only  from  Piel-forms  of  verbs,  and  that  the  verbs  n"-  do  not 
admit  this  manner  of  nouii-fornuition.  In  fact,  there  is  a  noun 
"shalvali,"  meaning  "  traniiuiliity  "  or  "  (juiet,"  derived  from  the 
verb  "  shalah."  The  foundation  for  this  last  exj)lanation  is  therefore 
very  weak. 

c!  The  opinion,  finally,  that  "Shiloh"  is  a  proper  name  of  the 
Messias  has  many  and  solid  arguments  in  its  favor,  a.  We  have 
already  noted  that  Jewish  tradition  favors  this  view,  since  three  Tar- 
guniim  (<  >hkelos,  .lonatban,  .bMiisaleiii),  tlie  .Niidrasli  licn'sliith  Kabba 
(seel.  9S,  99),  the  Midrash  I'k'lia  (iiam.  i.  Ki),  the  'I'almudic  treatise 
Saulietlrin    (I'ol.    9^,    col.    2),    agree    with    the    later  Jewi.sh    writers 


TUB  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH.  293 

And  his  ass,  O  my  son,  to  the  vine, 

Jarchi,  Moses,  and  Abarbanel  in  making  Shiloh  a  name  of  the 
Messias.  b.  Etj'mologically  considered,  Sbilohmay  be  explained  as  a 
shortened  form  for  Shilon,  as  Salomoh  is  a  shortened  form  for  Salomon. 
The  form  Shilon  may  then  be  derived  from  the  verb  "  shalah,"  and 
signify  "peaceful."  A  comparison  with  Ps.  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.)  3,  7; 
Ixxxiv.  (Ixxxv.)  11  ;  Is.  ix.  6  ;  Mich.  v.  5  ;  Luke  i.  79  ;  E\)\i.  ii.  14, 
17  ;  and  the  striking  parallelism  existing  between  Gen.  xlix.  8,  10  and 
Is.  xi.  1,  6-10  (Ezech.  xxi.  32)  render  such  a  view  of  Shiloh  very 
probable.  As  to  the  Samaritans,  we  must  grant  the  fact  that  they 
make  Shiloh  a  proper  name  of  Solomon,  the  great  enemy  of  the 
Mosaic  law  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  they  fully  agree  with  us  in  con- 
sidering the  woi'd  as  a  proper  name. 

Thus  far  we  have  regarded  the  reading  "  Shiloh  "  as  the  prefer- 
able one.  But  the  other  principal  reading,  "  shelloh  "  has  also  a  great 
many  arguments  in  its  favor,  (i.  It  is  found  in  38  of  de  Rossi's 
codices,  and  the  Hebrew- Samaritan  text  too  is  decidedly  in  its  favor. 
b.  If  we  except  St.  Jerome,  all  the  other  ancient  versions  suppose  the 
reading  "shelloh  "in  their  rendering  (LXX.,  Aquilas,  Symmachus, 
the  Syriac,  Onkelos,  the  Jerusalem  Targum,  Abu  Said  in  the  Samari- 
tan version,  Saadias  in  the  Arabic  rendering).  All  of  these  versions 
suppose  the  word  "  shelloh  "  to  consist  of  the  relative  "  sh,"  lli,  the 
preposition'';,  and  the  pronominal  suffix  n  ;  some  of  them  suggest  that 
a  word  must  be  supplied.  ('.  The  following  considerations  may  be 
added  to  what  has  thus  far  been  advanced  :  a.  The  pronominal  suffix 
n  occurs  instead  of  "^  twice  in  the  very  context  of  the  prophecy  (v.  11), 
so  that  the  unusual  form  cannot  create  any  surprise,  /J.  The  form 
"sh,"C,  for  the  relative  pronoun  occurs  as  early  as  (ien.  vi.  3; 
Judges  vi.  17  ;  v.  7,  so  that  the  dying  patriarch  may  well  have  used 
the  same  form.  Etymologically  speaking,  "  shelloh  "  presents  there- 
fore no  unanswerable  dilficulties.  d.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that 
"  shelloh  "  might  have  easily  been  written  instead  of  "shiloh"  on 
account  of  the  diminutive  size  of  the  letter  yodh  "^ ;  for  the  letter 
yodh,  as  written  in  the  ancient  Hebrew  alphabet,  is  as  large  as  any 
of  the  other  consonants.  On  the  other  hand,  the  insertion  of  yodh 
into  the  consonant  text  is  easily  explained.  It  may  be  looked  upon 
as  substituted  by  an  error  of  the  transcriber  instead  of  the  Daghesh 
forte  in  Lamedh  (?).  Jahn  has  shown  that  such  a  transcriber's  error 
is  not  without  parallel  (cf.  Ps.  xxi.  (xxii.)  17.)  e.  The  Greek  Fathers, 
who  follow  the  LXX.  version,  together  with  the  old  Latin  Fathers 
who  use  the  Itala,  favor  the  reading  "shelloh."  Similar  arguments 
may  be  drawn  from  Gal.  iii.  19  ;  Ezech.  xxi.  33  (Vulg.  87). 

a.  It  is  true  that  the  greater  number  of  the  Hebrew  manuscripts 
have  the  reading  "  shiloh."  But  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the 
oldest  of  them  does  not  date  beyond  the  ninth  century  after  Christ. 
fi.  The  exception  that  the  clause  "asher  lo  "  Cib  Tw5<)  nowhere  oc- 
curs in  Sacred  Scripture  without  having  the  noun  expressed  to  which 
the  relative  refers,  is  not  wholly  correct  in  its  statement  ;  for  IV. 
Kings  vi.  11  may  be  considered  as  an  instance  to  the  contrary,  y. 
Finally,  the  assertion  that  the  rea<ling  "  shelloh  "  gives  a  cold  mean- 
ing to  the  passage  is  wholly  unfounded;  to  describe  the  Messias  as 


294  niRTU  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

He  shall  wash  his  robe  in  wine, 

one  to  whom  the  sceptre  and  the  ruler's  staff  belong  is  surely  not  to 
detract  from  liis  Messianic  i)rero<ratives. 

Since  the  reading  "  sheih)h  "  is,  tlicrefore,  at  least  as  probable  as 
the  reading  "shiloh,"we  must  next  iii(|uire  into  its  exact  meaning. 
Concerning  this  interpreters  iiave  dilTered  in  opinion:  (t.  Many  tlilnk 
that  something  must  l)e  supplied  before  the  clause,  e.g.,  "  that,"  or 
*'  all,"  or  "  he  ;  "  hence  we  obtain  the  explanations:  "  until  that  come 
which  belongs  to  him,"  or  "  until  all  come  that  belongs  to  him,"  or 
"  until  he  come;  who  belongs  to  hini."  'I'he  first  of  these  three  mean- 
ings is  nilopted  by  the  LXX.  (rir  aTToKei'fieiut  <(i'ro."j),  the  second  has 
its  parallel  in  (Jen.  xxiv.  3(3;  the  third  nuiy  be  compared  with  ("ant. 
i.  G,  IV'.  Kings  vi.  11;  grammatically  considered  anyone  of  these 
three  explanations  is  admissible,  though  exegeticaliy  none  of  them  is 
desirable  on  account  of  the  cohl  and  jt^june  nu-aning  they  bear. 

b.  Another  explanation  suppo.ses  that  something  must  be  supplied 
after  "shelloh" — either  the  "sceptre"  and  the  "  ruh-r's  staff,"  or  a 
I)roni)un  referring  back  to  these  nouns.  According  to  this  view  the 
meaning  of  the  passage  is  :  "  until  he  come  to  whom  sceptre  and 
ruler's  staff  belong."  As  to  the  grammatical  construction,  it  has  its 
l^arallel  in  Lev.  xxvil.  24;  Ezech.  xxi.  '62.  Most  of  the  ancit'iit  ver- 
sions seem  to  have  interpreted  the  ])rophecy  in  this  sense,  and  the 
projihet  Ezechiel  must  have  taken  the  same  view  of  Jacob's  dying 
words.  Besides,  this  explanation  fits  in  well  with  the  idea  f>f  the 
Messias,  since  it  describes  him  as  the  rightful  heir  of  .sceptre  and  rul- 
er's staff.  It  thus  agrees  well  with  Matt,  xxviii.  IS  ;  Luke  i.  82  ; 
Jo.  xviii.  IJ7  ;  Ps.  ii.  (5-9,  etc.  The  poetic  setting  of  Jacob's  blessing 
is  well  calculated  to  explain  the,  apparent  irregularity  of  language 
involved  in  this  explanation  (cf.  Fs.  ii.  U  ;  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.)  2  ;  Luke  xxii. 
89;  I.  Cor.   xv.  23  ;   Apoc.  xix.  13-lG). 

*  The  expectation  of  the  nations.  The  lleb.  text  requires  that  wo 
render  either  "the  gathering  of  the  nations"  or  "the  obedience  of 
the  nations."  It  Is  clear  from  Ps.  ii.  7,  S,  9;  xliv.  (xlv.)  8-7;  Jo. 
xviii.  37  ;  Matt,  xxviii.  18,  19 ;  Luke  i.  82.  83  ;  Matt.  i.  20,  21  that 
this  obedience  is  a  spiritual  and  supernatural  obiHlience.  The  natu- 
ral connection  of  the  phrase  supposes  that  this  obetlience  is  due  to  the 
"Shiloh"  of  the  ])receding  clause,  and  not  to  Juda,  though  some 
int('r[>rt'ters  refer  it  to  the  latter.  Wellhausen  goes  so  far  as  to  omit 
the  first  words,  "  and  t )  him,"  in  the  Hebrew  text  ;  hen<;e  he  obtains 
the  rendering  :  "  until  he  couie  to  whom  is  duo  the  obedience  of  the 
nations." 

'"Tying  his  foal.  Explanations:  1.  The  literal  sense  of  these 
words  and  of  those  that  follow  refers  to  the  fruitfulness  of  Juda's 
territory.  Resting  in  unalterable  pea<'e,  Juda's  descendants  will  tie 
their  beasts  of  bunlen  to  the  common  vine,  and  the  young  ones  of 
their  beasts  of  burden  to  the  choicest  kind  of  vine  ;  wine  will  be  so 
abundant  in  Judea  that  it  will  be  used  instead  of  water,  and  oven  the 
natural  features  of  the  children  of  Juda  will  be  afTected  by  the  abun- 
dance of  wine.  ThoseCatholics  who  adhere  to  this  exidanation  ap])ly 
the  prophecy  in  its  typical  .sense  to  the  .Me.ssias.  2.  Other  Catholics 
a|»ply  the  prediction  in  its  literal,  though  in  its  metaphorical,  sens« 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIA8'  BIRTH  295 

And  his  garment  in  the  blood  of  the  grape. 
His  eyes  are  more  beautiful  than  wine, 
And  his  teeth  whiter  than  milk. 

COROLLAKIES. 

1.  The  exact  meaning  of  the  present  prophecy  depends 
on  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words  "shebeth," 
"mechoqeq,"  "'ad  ki/'  and  on  the  nature  of  the  obedience 
promised. 

a.  It  follows  from  our  explanation  of  "  shebeth  "  and 
"  mechoqeq  "  that  whether  we  take  them  in  the  sense  of 

to  the  Messias :  a.  Ephrem,  Justin,  and  Cyril  maintain  that  the 
clauses  "  tying  his  foal  .  .  ."  refer  to  the  triumphal  entrance  of 
Jesus  into  Jerusalem  (Zach.  ix.  9).  /'.  Others  are  of  opinion  that  the 
vine  represents  tLe  Synagogue,  while  the  "foal"  and  the  "ass" 
represent  the  ccllection  of  the  Gentiles.  Hence  Jesus  ties  his  foal  to 
the  vine  because  he  has  bronght  the  (ientiles  to  the  true  faith  of  tlio 
Synagogue,  c.  The  "wine  and  the  blood  of  the  gra])e "  are  the 
l)lood  of  Christ,  while  the  "robe"  and  the  "garment"  are  his  hu- 
man nature.  The  whole  clause  describes,  therel'or(\  the  suffering  of 
Jesus  Christ  for  the  redemption  of  tlu^  world  (Tertullian,  Ilijipolytns, 
Novatian,  Ambrose,  Chrysostom,  (iaudentius  ol'  Brescia,  Paulinus, 
Theodoret,  Cyril  of  Alexand.,  Isidore  llispal.,  Photius  ;  cf.  liamy, 
in  Gen.  p.  378).  d.  According  to  f>thers,  again,  the  Avine  and  the 
blood  of  the  grape  have  the  same  meaning  as  in  the  preceding  pas- 
sage, while  the  rol)e  and  the  garment  signify  not  the  human  nature  of 
the  Word  Incarnate,  but  the  Cliurch  and  the  collection  of  the  Gen- 
tiles who  will  be  converted  to  Christ.  Tbus  the  passage  directly 
indicates  that  all  the  redeemed  will  be  washed  in  the  blood  of  the 
lamb  (Hippolytus,  Ambrose,  Isidoi'c,  Justin,  Origen,  Eufinus,  Augus- 
tine, Athanasius).  This  explanation  appears  to  have  parallel  jias- 
sages  in  Is.  xlix.  18;  Ixiii.  1-2  ;  Apoc.  xix.  13.  Patrizi  endeavors  to 
exclude  all  literal  reference  of  the  passage  to  the  land  of  Juda  from 
the  fact  that  this  country  was  in  no  way  remarkable  for  it  fertility. 
It  may  also  lie  added  that  those  who  refer  the  "tying  of  the  foal" 
to  Christ's  triumphal  entrance  into  Jerusalem  believe  either  that  there 
was  a  vine  near  the  temjile  to  which  Jesus  tied  the  animal  after  ho 
had  entered  the  city,  or  else  they  think  that  the  beast  was  tied  to  a 
vine  when  the  disciples  went  to  loose  him. 

"His  eyes  are  more  beautiful.  The  words  may  be  rendered  either: 
"His  eyes  are  more  beautiful  (blacker,  moie  sparkling,  redder)  than 
Avine,  and  his  teeth  whiter  than  milk  "  or  "  his  eyes  are  sparkling 
(l)eautiful,  etc.)  from  wine,  and  his  teeth  are  white  from  milk."  Ex- 
planations: 1.  The  fertility  of  the  land  is  thus  descriljed  (Vigouroux); 
2.  Christ's  bodily  beaiity  is  thus  foretold  ;  3.  Christ's  doctrine  ifi  thus 
rejiresented  as  most  attractive  and  beautiful  (Ephrem);  4.  the  beauty 
of  Christ's  body  after  his  resurrection  is  predicted  (Theodoret). 


^00  BTRTII  OF  THE  MESSTAS. 

"  tribe  and  ruler,"  or  in  the  more  jirobable  meaning  of 
"sceptre  and  ruler's  staff,"  tliey  promise  in  any  case  po- 
litical power  to  the  tribe  of  Juda.  We  do  not  grant  that 
this  political  power  means  necessarily  royal  authority  ;  for 
the  royal  dignity  ceased  in  Juda  with  Jechonias  and  Sede- 
cias  (though  it  was  temporarily  revived  in  Zorobabel),  while 
])ulitical  inlluence  remained  in  the  tribe  till  about  the 
time  of  Christ's  birth.  Even  during  tlie  j^eriod  of  the 
liabylonian  captivity,  this  power  was  not  entirely  taken 
away,  as  appears  from  the  trial  of  Susanna  (Dan.  xiii.  5). 
At  the  later  period  of  the  Machabces,  of  the  Asmoneans 
and  the  Ilerodians,  the  tribe  of  Juda  was  so  prominent 
that  the  whole  remaining  nation  was  named  after  it,  and 
the  members  of  the  Sanhedrin  were  to  a  great  extent 
taken  from  its  ranks.  The  tribe's  political  importance 
may  be  considered  as  extinct  either  at  the  time  when  Judea 
became  a  full  Koman  province,  after  the  dei)osition  of 
Archelaus,  or,  at  any  rate,  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem by  Titus. 

h.  This  agrees  with  the  double  rendering  of  which  "  'ad 
ki "  is  susceptible.  For  whether  we  understand  it  as  meaning 
"until,"  or  in  the  sense  of  "forever,  because,"  it  implies 
that  Juda*s^Jo////fY?/  influence  is  to  cease  at  the  coming  of 
the  Messias.  Though  the  word  "until"  does  not  of 
itself  inijily  the  cessation  of  the  action  or  of  the  state  to 
which  it  refers  (cf.  Matt.  i.  25;  Dent,  xxxiv.  G),  still  in  the 
present  passage  it  indicates  negatively  such  a  cessation  of 
Juda's  political  prominence.  For  the  latter  is  implied  in 
the  following  words  of  the  promise.  If  the  acceptation  "  for- 
ever, ])ecause"  be  preferred,  the  eternity  of  Juda's  rule  is 
based  on  the  coming  of  the  ^Messias,  and  on  his  universal 
rule.  Hence,  in  this  case,  too,  the  merely />"///^rr/ inlluence 
of  Juda  will  end  with  the  ]\ressias.  All  this  will  happen" 
connectedly,  so  that  Juda's  political  jiower  will  form  the 
type  of  which  the  IMessias  will  be  the  antityiie.  The 
latter  is,  therefore,  truly  represented  as  the  lion  of  Juda's 
tribi',  who  retires  to  his  mountain  fastnesses  after  the  ea])- 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESS  FAS'  BIRTH  297 

ture  of  his  booty  (cf.  Apoc.  v.  5,  9,  10).  The  promise  made 
to  David  (II.  Kings  \'ii.  14)  is  very  similar  to  Juda's 
promise. 

c.  It  has  been  stated  that  instead  of  the  clause  "  expec- 
tation of  the  nations  "  we  must  render,  "unto  him  shall  be 
the  obedience  of  the  nations."  Most  probably  the  "him" 
of  this  clause  refers  to  the  preceding  "  Shiloh/'  and  there- 
fore directly  to  the  Messias.  But  even  if  we  admit  the 
other  possible  reference  of  "him"  to  Juda,  this  patriarch 
is  a  Avell-known  type  of  the  Messias;  and  what  has  been 
pai"tially  fulfilled  in  Juda  will  find  its  final  and  entire  ac- 
comjilishmcnt  in  the  person  of  the  Messias. 

d.  This  is  the  more  true  since  the  obedience  of  Avhich 
Jacob  speaks  is  a  spiritual  obedience,  as  may  be  seen  in 
Ps.  ii.  7,  8,  9;  xliv.  (xlv.)  3-7;  Jo.  xviii.  37;  Matt,  xxviii. 
18,  19;  Luke  i.  32,  33;  Matt.  i.  20,  21.  A  spiritual  obe- 
dience Avas  due  to  the  Messias  %  right  as  soon  as  a  Church 
was  founded  which  was  to  embrace  in  its  fold  all  the  nations 
of  the  earth  (Matt,  xxviii.  19;  Rom.  iii.  22).  In  point  of 
fact,  the  general  obedience  of  the  nations  Avas  paid  to 
Christ  as  soon  as  the  Christian  faith  Avas  preached  to  all  the 
peoples  of  the  earth  (Rom.  x.  IS;  i.  8). 

2.  Is  the  Messias  to  be  of  Juda's  tribe  ?  The  dying  pa- 
triarch does  not  state  explicitly  that  the  Messias  is  to  de- 
scend from  his  son  Juda.  But  if  the  whole  context  of  the 
prediction  be  considered,  this  privilege  is  at  least  impli- 
citly foretold  in  Jacob's  blessing.  For  the  whole  passage 
referring  to  Juda  is  full  of  praise  and  blessing  for  that 
patriarch.  Now,  if  the  promised  Messias  were  not  to  be  of 
Juda's  seed,  the  prophecy  would  be  rather  against  than  in 
favor  of  Juda,  since  it  Avould  announce  that  at  some  future 
time  Juda  would  lose  his  sceptre  and  ruler's  staff,  which 
must  pass  over  to  the  Messias,  and  in  him  to  the  tribe  of 
his  birth. 

3.  The  contemjioraries  of  Juda  could  infer  from  this 
prophecy  that  his  special  tribe  Avould  have  the  primacy 
among  the  Israelites  until,  at  some  future  time,  a  prince 


'i08  BIRTH  OF  TIIK  MKSSIAS. 

slioiiltl  be  born  who  would  own  all  power  and  dignity, 
and  who  would  be  honored  by  the  voluntary  obedienee  of 
many  nations  and  j)eo])les.  By  comparing  this  prediction 
with  the  previous  Messianic  prophecies,  the  devout  Israelite 
could  infer  with  the  greatest  i)robability  that  this  prince  of 
Juda's  tribe  would  be  the  seed  of  the  woman  l)y  whose 
agency  the  serpent's  head  would  be  crushed,  and  the  seed 
of  tlie  patriarchs  in  whom  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  were 
to  Ije  blessed.  Hence  they  might  expect  by  virtue  of  the 
])roi)hecy  a  mighty  prince  springing  from  the  family  of 
Juda,  who  would  bring  most  of  the  nations  to  his  obedience, 
and  who  would,  by  means  of  this  obedience,  procure  for 
them  all  manner  of  supernatural  blessings. 

4.  Omitting  the  rationalistic  views  which  have  been 
stated  in  the  ex])lanation  of  the  text,  we  must  draw  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  from  Jacob's  prophecy  may  be  drawn 
an  invincible  argument  against  the  Jews.  For  even  if  we 
do  not  insist  on  the  minute  points  of  agreement  between 
Ijrophecy  and  fulfilnicnt,  which  might  perhaps  be  ques- 
tioned by  our  opponents,  it  is  at  least  certain  that  the  scep- 
tre and  the  ruler's  staff  have  passed  away  from  the  favored 
tribe,  and  that  therefore  the  "  Shiloh,"  in  whatever  sense 
the  word  may  be  taken,  must  have  come  before  our  time. 
Nor  can  it  be  said  that  Jacob's  prediction  was  wholly  con- 
ditional, the  condition  of  "Shiloh's"  coming  being  the 
faithfulness  of  Israel.  In  the  i)rophecy  itself  there  is  no 
vestige  of  such  a  condition;  its  assumption  is,  therefore, 
a  gratuitous  subterfuge.  At  most  it  might  be  granted 
that  the  political  supremacy  promised  to  Juda  would  be 
interrupted  for  a  time  on  account  of  the  sins  of  the  jieople; 
but  the  wliole  order  of  God's  supernatural  jirovidence, 
which  he  had  several  times  unconditionally  predicted,  could 
certainly  not  be  rendered  void  l)y  human  malice. 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MES8IA8'  BIRTH.  299 

Section  II.  Daniel's  Seventy  Weeks. 
Dan.  ix.  22-37. 

Introduction. 

1.  Time  and  Occasion  of  the  Prophecy.— In  the  first 
year  of  Darius  the  Mode,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity,  Daniel,"  considering  that  the  seventy  years 
of  desolation  foretold  by  Jeremias  (xxv.  11;  xxix.  10)  were 
drawing  to  their  close,  implores  God  in  fervent  i^rayer  to  for- 
give the  people's  sin,  and  to  look  favorably  upon  his  ruined 
sanctuary  (vv.  1-19).  The  angel  Gabriel  appears  to  Daniel 
and  lifts  up  his  thoughts  from  the  seventy  years  of  the  cap- 
tivity to  the  seventy  weeks  that  must  elapse  till  the  Mes- 
sianic redemption  will  arrive.  The  entire  period  of  seventy 
weeks  is  divided  into  three  periods,  consisting  of  seven, 
and  sixty-two,  and  one  week,  respectively.  It  is  foretold 
that  in  seven  weeks  after  the  issuing  of  the  command  to 
restore  the  city  Jerusalem  will  be  rebuilt,  though  in 
straitened  times;  that  at  the  end  of  the  sixty-two  weeks 
elapsed  after  the  seven  weeks,  an  anointed  one,  a  ruler,  will 
appear;  that  finally  aii  anointed  one  will  be  cut  off,  and 
the  people  of  a  prince  that  shall  come  will  desolate  tlie 
city  and  the  sanctuary,  and  he  Avill  make  a  covenant  with 
many  in  one  week, -and  during  half  of  this  week  (or  about 
the  middle  of  this  week)  sacrifice  and  oblation  will  cease 
until  the  end  come,  and  the  divinely  decreed  consumma- 
tion. 

2.  Unchristian  Explanations  of  the  Prophecy.— «. 
The  command  to  restore  Jerusalem  is  the  divine  promise 
given  through  Jeremias  (xxxi.  38  ff.)  for  the  rebuilding  of 
the  city  (b.c.  588) ;  tlio  anointed  prince  is  Cyrus  (r.(\  538;  cf. 
Is.  xlv.  1;  xliv.  28);  the  "straitened  times"  refers  to  the  de- 
pressed state  of  the  community  (b.c.  538-172);  the  anoint- 
ed one  is  the  high-priest  Onias  III.,  deposed  in  175  B.C., 
assassinated  in  172  r,.c.  (cf.  II,  Maeh.  iv.) ;  the  people  of 
the  coming  prince,  etc.,  alludes  to  the  attacks  made  on  Je- 


•iOO  Bmril  OF  THE  MESSTA8. 

nisaleni  by  Antiocliiis  Epiijluiiies,  to  the  willing  allies  whom 
he  found  among  the  renegade  Jews,  to  liis  suspension  of 
the  temple  services,  and  the  destruction  which  finally  over- 
took him  (1G4  B.C.).  In  the  beginning  of  the  prophecy 
the  Messianic  age  is  described  which  will  succeed  the  per- 
secutions of  Antiochus,  while  the  anointing  of  the  Most 
Holy  alludes  to  the  re-dedication  of  the  altar  of  burnt- 
olferings  (1G5  B.C.). 

1.  Driver  is  right  in  admitting  that  one  of  the  chief  ob- 
jections to  this  interpretation  is  that  the  period  from  B.C. 
538  to  172  is  only  3GG  years — not  434,  or  62  weeks.    To  say 
that  we  do  not  know  how  the  author  computed  his  years, 
or  what  chronology  he  followed,  is  equivalent  to  acknowl- 
edging that  the  difficulty  is  unanswerable.      2.  The  paral- 
lelism between  Dan.  ix.  2G5-27  and  vii.  25  is  not  so  great 
as  to  necessitate  the  above  explanation  in  spite  of  its  in- 
superable difficulties.     3.  Nor  can  such  a  necessity  be  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  that  Antiochus  is  the  principal  figure 
in  the  whole  section  of  Daniel  to  which  the  })resent  i^roph- 
ecy  belongs.     4.  It  is  true  that  Schiirer  (The  Jewish   Peo- 
ple in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ,  II.  iii.  p.  54)  oifers  sev- 
eral instances  in  which  the  Jewish  historian  Josephus  and 
the  Jewish  Hellenist  Demetrius  miscalculate  chronological 
dates  by  nearly  the  same  numl)cr  of  years  that  is  wanting  m 
the  preceding  explanation  of  Daniel's  prophecy./nutit  nnist 
be  well  noted  that  both  of  these  historians  evidently  com- 
mitted a  chronological  l)lunder— an  imputation  which  Cath- 
olics cannot  admit  against  Daniel, yft'hom  fSi'hiirer  and  the 
other  writers  of  his  school  consider  merely  an  author  who 
endeavors  to  explain  the  seventy  years  occurring  in  Jere- 
mias'  prophecy  of    seventy  weeks  of   years.     5.  There  is 
another  difficulty  that  Driver  does  not  state:    Jeremias  in 
his  ]iruphecy,  which  sjtcaks  of  the  seventy  years,  has  noth- 
ing at  all  about  tlie  rebuilding  of  the  city,  and  the  proph- 
ecy itself  was  issued   in   the    fourth  year  of  .Joakim,  i.e., 
GOG  B.C.  (Jer.  xxv.  I  ;  (  I".  x\v.  1 1),  while  the  year  of  Cyrus' 
edict  is  53G    b.c. — a  period  of  10,  not  of  7,  weeks  after  the 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'   BIRTH.  301 

prophecy.  6.  After  all  these  considerations  we  need 
not  add  that  the  supposition  of  two  Christs,  or  Anointed 
Ones,  is  hardly  called  for  by  the  wording  of  the  proj)liecy. 
7.  Though  Calmet  adheres  to  this  interpretation  of  the 
literal  meaning  of  the  prophecy,  and  in  spite  of  such  author- 
ities as  Hitzig,  van  Lennep  (De  70  jaarweken  van  Daniel, 
Utrecht,  1888),  and  Cornill  (Die  siebzig  Jahrwochen 
Daniels,  1889),  we  must  state  that  this  view  ajipears  to  us 
wholly  unsatisfactory. 

b.  Accordiiig  to  Wieseler  (Die  70  Woche  und  die  03 
Jahrwoche  des  Proi^heten  Daniels;  cf.  Corluy,  Spicil.,  pp. 
506  f.)  the  anointed  prince  and  the  anointed  one  signify 
the  same  person,  i.e.,  the  high-priest  Onias.  The  coming 
prince  is  Antiochus,  who  conquered  the  holy  city,  profaned 
the  temj^le,  interrupted  the  sacrifices  for  three  years  and 
a  half,  i.e.,  for  half  a  week,  and  who  finally  entered  into 
an  unholy  alliance  with  many  Jews  for  seven  years,  after 
which  period  he  died  in  a  hostile  invasion  (cf.  I.  Mach.  i. 
11,  22,23,45,57;  vi.  1-9;  II.  Mach.  v.  11-27;  vi.  4;  ix.  4). 
The  following  are  the  principal  arguments  for  Wieseler's 
interpretation  :  1.  The  general  agreement  of  times  and 
events  with  the  terms  of  the  prediction;  2.  the  parallelism 
of  Dan.  ix.  24  ff.  and  vii.  24,  25;  xii.  7,  11,  12;  vii.  2G; 
3.  the  abomination  of  desolation  in  the  temple,  which  is 
foretold,  is  in  Dan.  xi.  31  identified  with  the  idol-worship 
introduced  into  the  temple  by  Antiochus;  4.  another 
argument  is  taken  from  the  Messianic  blessings  which 
Daniel  describes  in  tlie  beginning  of  his  prophecy:  the 
remission  of  sin,  the  scaling  of  the  vision,  and  the  anointing 
of  the  saint  of  saints.  For  Jer.  1.  18-20  speaks  about  the 
end  of  sin  and  everlasting  justice  as  arriving  at  the  end  of 
the  Babylonian  captivity;  thesealingof  vision  and  jirophecy 
will  happen  about  the  same  time,  since  the  pro])hecy  of 
which  there  is  question  is  none  other  than  that  of  Jeremias, 
concerning  which  l^aiiiel  was  inquiring  (cf.  Dan.  ix.  2; 
Jer.  XXV.  11;  xxix.  10);  the  holy  of  Jiolies  was  anointed 
at     the    same    time    by  the   consecration    of    Zoro])al)ers 


802  BIltTlI  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

temple;  5.  the  words  "and  there  is  none  to  him"  are 
quite  applicable  to  Onias,  who  had  no  successor  in  the 
office  of  hi<fhpriest;  G.  finally,  the  "wing"  or  "the  height 
of  abomination  "  (lleb.)  is  e(|ually  api)licable  to  the  pol- 
luted altar. 

\\\\i  this  explanation  does  not  agree  Avith  the  true  chronol- 
ogy. (I.  It  is  true  that  Cyrus'  decree,  to  which  reference 
is  made  in  Is.  xlv.  13,  and  which  is  })resupposcd  by  Agg.  i, 
4,  im])licitly  contains  the  permission  to  restore  the  city, 
since  it  allows  the  Jews  explicitly  to  rebuild  the  temple. 
l)Ut  this  decree  was  issued  in  538  or  in  530  w.v.,  while  the 
high})riest  Onias  was  deposed  in  175  B.C.,  and  killed  three 
years  later.  Hence  there  is  only  an  interval  of  303  years 
l)etween  the  decree  and  its  supposed  fulfilment,  b.  liesides, 
the  deposition  and  death  of  Onias  are  hardly  of  sufficient 
importance  to  form  the  term  of  Daniel's  prophecy,  c. 
Again,  the  prophecy  does  not  suppose  that  the  coming 
leader  will  be  killed;  for  in  tliat  case,  the  anointed 
})i'iiiee  of  whom  there  is  question  in  verse  25,  and  who 
is  killed  in  verse  20,  is  again  introduced  as  acting  in 
verse  27 — a  process  that  can  hardly  be  verified  in  the  case 
of  a  mere  man.  d.  The  parallelism  between  the  present 
prophecy  and  other  passages  of  Daniel  in  which  the  proi)het 
treats  of  Antiochus  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  real 
analogy  of  events,  even  if  ix.  24  IT.  is  a  INIessianic  i)redic- 
tion.  c.  If  the  abomination  of  desolation  was  in  the 
temple  at  the  time  of  Antiochus,  it  was  there  not  less 
truly  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion  under  Titus. 
/'.  Moreover,  it  is  not  certain  that  the  abomination  of 
desolation  necessarily  refers  to  idolatry,  since  it  nniy  well 
be  understood  of  the  Jewish  sins  which  were  the  cause 
of  the  tcmi)le's  destruction,  rj.  Vision  and  projjhecy 
cannot  refer  to  the  prediction  of  Jeromias  alone, 
l)e('ause  the  whole  collection  of  his  predictions  was  not 
sealed  and  put  out  of  use,  as  it  were,  by  the  fulfilment 
ot  this  })art.icular  prophecy.  //.  Everlasting  justice  did 
cert;iinly  not   come  at  the  time  of  ( hiias,  since  even  after 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH.  303 

his  time  the  people  of  Israel  was  afflicted  by  reason  of  its 
transgressions  (II.  Mach.  vi.  12  f.).  i.  Neither  the  first 
nor  the  second  temple  was  anointed ;  hence  the  anointing 
of  the  holy  of  holies  cannot  he  explained  in  this  manner. 
The  anointing  must  be  understood  metaphorically  of  the 
outpouring  of  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost  or,  at  least,  of  a 
special  theocratic  mission  (cf.  Ps.  xliv.  (xlv.)  8;  Is.  Ixi.  1; 
I.  Pet.  ii.  5,  9;  I.  Jo.  ii.  20,  27;  Acts  iv.  27;  x.  38;  II.  Cor. 
i.  21 ;  I.  Kings  xvi.  13,  14).  h.  Besides,  all  these  privileges, 
the  sealing  of  prophecy,  the  end  of  sin,  and  the  anointing 
of  the  holy  of  holies,  were  predicted  as  occurring  not  before 
but  after  the  seventy  weeks. 

c.  After  considering  the  more  commonly  accei)ted  theories 
of  Daniel's  prophecy  at  greater  length,  we  state  briefly 
some  of  the  other  explanations  tbat  have  found  any 
distinguished  adherents.  According  to  Ewald,  the 
anointed  prince  is  Cyrus,  the  anointed  one  that  will  be 
killed  is  Seleucus  IV.  Philopator,  the  brother  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  who  was  poisoned.  Finally,  the  coming  leader 
is  Antiochus  himself.  Rosenmiiller's  interpretation  does 
not  differ  much  from  Ewald's,  except  that  the  anointed 
one  who  must  be  killed  is  Alexander  the  Great.  The 
arguments  brought  against  the  preceding  opinions  are 
valid  against  the  last  two  also.  This  applies  equally  to  the 
view  expressed  by  Briggs  (Messianic  Proidiecy,  p.  423), 
according  to  which  some  of  the  Fathers"  and  many  recent 
interpreters  regard  the  prophecy  as  referring  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  kingdom  of  God,  from  the  end  of  the 
exile  to  the  fulfilment  of  the  kingdom  at  the  second  advent. 
The  meaning  of  the  word  "  weeks,"  compared  with  the 
historical  events,  renders  this  explanation  wholly  im- 
probable. 

3,  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecy.— a.  The 
LXX.  translators  seem  to  have  understood  Daniel's  2)rophecy 
as  predicting  only  a  restoration  of  the  holy  city,  followed 
by  another  Gentile  conquest  of  the  same,  which  in  turn 
will  be  succeeded  by  a  long  prosperous  theocratic  rule  and 


304  BIRTH  OF  THE  MKSSIAS. 

eiul  with  ii  liiKil  irreparable  destruction.  Probably  the 
iirst  Gentile  concjuest  was  by  them  identified  with  the  in- 
vasion of  Antiochns,  and  the  second  they  wunld  have 
hardly  distinguished  from  the  Roman  inroad  under  Titus. 
A  similar  view  is  represented  in  the  few  Kabbinic  passages 
which  refer  to  Daniel's  proi)hecy  at  all.  In  Naz.  32  b  it 
is  noted  that  the  prediction  refers  to  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  or  rather  to  the  time  wiien  the  second  temple 
was  to  be  destroyed.  The  same  interpretation  is  found  in 
Yalkut,  vol.  ii.  p.  '<9  d,  line  IGth,  etc.,  from  the  l)()ttom. 

h.  From  the  New  Testament,  however,  we  may  infer 
that  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ  understood  the  i)rophecy 
as  applying  to  the  Messianic  time.  For  Christ,  in  applying 
the  i)rediction  to  the  city's  destruction  I)y  the  IJomans, 
speaks  in  such  a  manner  that  the  apostles  must  have  been 
quite  familiar  with  this  explanation  of  the  })rophecy.  And 
since,  immediately  after,  Jesus  warns  his  disciples  against 
false  Christs,  we  have  reason  to  infer  that  the  apostles 
understood  the  prediction  as  referring  to  the  true  Christ. 

c.  Flavins  Joscphus  (B.  J.  IV.  vi.  ;3)  testifies  that  the 
prophecy  was  understood  of  the  ruin  and  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  "  And  they  fullilled,"  he  writes,  "the  pro])hecy 
given  out  against  the  fatherland.  For  there  existed  an 
old  tradition  among  men,  that  at  some  future  time  the 
city  should  be  destroyed  and  the  sanctuary  should  l)e  burnt 
by  right  of  war,  when  a  sedition  should  have  ai'isen,  and 
their  own  hands  should  have  jjolluted  the  sanctuary  of 
God;  the  unbelieving  zealots  nuule  themselves  the  willing 
instruments  of  all  this."  The  Jews  must  therefore  have 
api)lied  the  prediction  to  the  IJoman  inroad  into  Palestine. 

(l.  It  is  certain  that  at  the  time  of  Christ  the  Jews  gen- 
erally expected  the  advent  of  the  promised  Messias.  This 
we  see  both  from  Sacred  .Scripture  and  from  jirofane 
historians  (cf.  Jo.  iv.  25;  Luke  ii.  '.'.");  xix.  11;  xxv.  f)!; 
Tacitus,  Ilistor.  v.  !;>;  Sueton.,  \'espas.  4).  The  older 
ll:ilil)iiiic  writers  too,  as  Solomon  Janhi.  etc.,  maintain 
ili.it  the  tim(;  of  the  Messias  hud  been  announced  in  Han- 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH.  305 

iel's  proi^hecy,  but  in  order  to  avoid  the  argument  urged 
against  tlicm  by  the  Christians,  they  said  that  the  predic- 
tion had  been  conditional,  its  fulfihnent  dejjending  on  the 
state  of  the  Jews  at  the  time  determined.  Since,  therefore, 
the  Jews  at  that  time  were  unworthy  of  the  promised 
redemption,  tlie  Messias  did  not  apjiear. 

c.  If  we  turn  to  the  Christian  Church,  we  find  that 
lier  founder  was  not  alone  in  the  Messianic  interpretation 
of  Daniel  ix.  24  fp . ;  the  oldest  testimony  after  the  Gospel 
account  dates  from  the  second  century  after  Christ,  and  is 
contained  in  the  Testament  of  the  Patriarchs.  In  the 
Testament  of  Levi  we  have  the  following  passage:  "And 
now  I  know  from  the  Book  of  Daniel  that  you  will  err  for 
seventy  weeks,  and  sin  against  the  priesthood,  and  pollute 
the  sacrifices,  and  destroy  the  law,  and  despise  the  words 
of  the  prophet;  in  yonr  perversity  you  will  persecute  the 
just  ones,  and  hate  the  pious,  and  abominate  the  sayings 
of  the  truthful,  and  call  him  a  heretic  who  will  restore  the 
power  of  the  law  by  the  strength  of  the  Most  High. 
Finally,  you  will  slay  him,  not  being  aware  of  his  resurrec- 
tion, and  you  will  bring  his  innocent  blood  maliciously 
upon  your  own  heads.  On  his  account  your  sanctuary  shall 
be  deserted,  shall  be  profaned  down  to  its  very  foundations, 
and  your  place  shall  no  longer  be  holy ;  you  shall  be  cursed 
among  the  Gentiles,  and  despair  shall  afflict  you,  until  he 
shall  visit  you  again,  and  in  his  mercy  receive  you  in  faith 
and  in  Avater." 

/.  Many  of  the  oldest  Fathers  omit  the  mention  of 
Daniel's  prophecy  in  their  polemic  and  apologetic  treatises; 
for  in  these  writings  they  could  employ  only  those  predic- 
tions that  were  acknowledgedly  Messianic.  Reusch  (Theo- 
logische  Quartalschrift,  18G8,  pj).  535  ff.)  has  summarized 
the  patristic  literature  referring  to  this  prophecy  in  a 
masterly  way,  and  from  this  work  it  appears  that  the 
Fathers  were  in  no  way  unfamiliar  with  the  Messianic  in- 
terpretation of  Daniel's  })rediction.  a.  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria (Strom,  i.   21,  125  ff.)   quotes  the  entire  passage  of 


8()G  BIRTH  OF  TllK  MKSSIAS. 

Thcodotioii :  tlic  saint  of  yaiiits  is  Christ;  the  iH'giiniiiig  of 
the  seventy  weeks  coinciiles  with  the  end  of  the  Babyh)nian 
captivity;  tlie  hist  wee^  coincides  with  tlie  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  by  tlie  Romans;  of  the  public  life  and  the  death 
of  Christ  the  Father  says  nothing.  ^.  Origen  has  a  double 
interpretation  of  the  beginning  of  the  seventy  weeks:  Je- 
rome (In  Dan.  ix.)  represents  him  as  making  tlie  lirst  year 
of  Darius  the  Mede  the  beginning  of  the  prophetic  period, 
but  it  nuist  be  confessed  that  Origen  himself  (In  Matt.,  n. 
40)  follows  an  entirely  dilTerent  metliod :  the  single  weeks 
com})rise  70  years,  and  they  begin  with  the  history  of  Adam, 
ending  with  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem;  the  half  of  the 
week  consists  consequently  of  35  years,  so  that  the  last  half 
begins  with  the  }iuljli(^  life  of  Jesus  and  ends  with  Judea's 
ruin;  the  anointed  k'ader  is  Jesus  Christ,  who  spiritually 
restores  Jerusalem  and  ends  the  times  allowed  to  the  Jew- 
ish nation,  y.  Irena^us  (liter.  V.  xxv.  ;5,  4)  makes  the 
seventy  weeks  end  with  the  end  of  the  world;  the  half  of 
the  week  is  exi)lained  according  to  Dan.  vii.  25,  so  that  it 
refei's  to  the  persecution  of  Antichrist,  d.  Hippolytus 
(Int.  Dan.  ix.  2)  begins  the  seventy  weeks  in  the  twenty- 
first  year  of  the  seventy  years  of  Jeremias  (Dan.  ix.  2);  the 
anointed  leader  he  identifies  with  Jesus  the  son  of  Josedec; 
the  sixty-two  weeks  he  i)laces  between  the  end  of  the  Babylo- 
nian captivity,  i.e.,  the  year  536  n.c,  and  the  nativity  of 
Jesus.  The  last  week  is  supposed  to  precede  the  end  of 
the  world,  its  tirst  half  being  assigned  to  the  j)reaching  of 
Enoch  and  Elias,  its  second  half  to  the  persecution  of 
Antichrist.  e.  Julius  vVfricanus  (ap.  Euseb.  Demonst. 
Evang.  viii.  2,  4())  begins  the  seventy  weeks  in  the  twen- 
tieth year  of  Artaxerxes,  whicli  in  his  o})inion  is  the  fourth 
year  of  the  83d  olyni])iad ;  he  ends  the  i)roplietic  weeks  in 
the  sixteenth  year  of  Tiberius — according  to  Jerome  (In 
Dan.  ix.)  in  the  fifteenth — i.e.,  the  second  year  of  the  20.2d 
olympiad.  C.  Tertullian  has  again  a  dilTeiH'iit  way  of 
leckoning:  beginning  with  the  first  year  ttf  Darius  tlie 
Mede,  whom  lie  mistakes  for   Darius  ^Jotlius  (424-404),  ho 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSTAS'  BIRTH.  807 

counts  437|  years  to  the  birtli  of  Christ  (i.e.,  G2^  weeks) ; 
the  remaining  74  weeks  intervene  between  Christ's  birth 
and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (Adv.  Jud.  8  and  11). 
It  appears  from  the  manner  in  which  he  begins  his  compu- 
tation tliat  he  considers  Christ's  birth  and  passion  as  well 
as  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  as  being  predicted  in 
Daniel's  prophecy.  ?/.  Eusebius  has  given  various  expla- 
nations of  Daniel's  prophecy.  In  one  place  he  agrees  with 
the  foregoing  opinion  of  Julius  Africanus  (Demon.  Evang. 
VIII.  ii.  4G);  in  another  passage  he  begins  the  seventy 
weeks  with  the  return  of  the  exiles  under  Cyrus;  seven 
weeks  he  counts  till  the  restoration  of  the  temple  in  the 
sixth  year  of  Darius  IIystasj)is  (51G),  and  tlie  following  62 
Aveeks  bring  us  to  the  death  of  the  anointed  leader  Alexan- 
der Jannajus,  and  to  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey 
(Demon.  Evang.  VIII.  ii.  55-79).  A  third  opinion  the  writer 
l)roposes  in  Demon.  Evang.  (VIII.  ii.  80):  beginning  with 
the  second  year  of  Darius  Ilystaspis  (520  B.C.),  the  sixty- 
nine  weeks  end  at  the  birth  of  our  Lord ;  the  cessation  of 
the  anointed  signifies  the  eiul  of  the  legitimate  succession  of 
highpriests ;  the  last  week  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
series,  so  that  its  first  half  embraces  the  public  life  of 
Christ,  while  its  second  half  abrogates  the  worship  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  brings  on  the  abomination  of  desolation 
by  the  passion  and  death  of  Jesus  C'hrist.  ■&.  This  last  ex- 
planation of  Eusebius  is  found  also  in  the  writings  of  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem,  i.  Apollinaris  of  Laodicea  (Jerome,  in  Dan. 
ix.)  begins  from  the  birth  of  our  Lord  and  ends  at  the  end 
of  the  world;  the  preaching  of  Enoch  and  Elias  will  fill 
one  half  of  the  last  week,  and  the  persecutions  of  Antichrist 
the  other  half.  k.  Chrysostom  (Adv.  Jud.  v.  9)  begins 
his  reckoning  from  the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes, 
between  which  and  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  state  by 
Pompey  and  Vespasian  he  counts  the  09  years,  without 
mentioning  the  Messianic  bearing  of  the  prophecy.  A.  Isi- 
dore of  Pelusium  is  noted  for  the  same  silence  (Ep.  iii.  249). 
jii.  Basil  (Or.  38)  begins  with  the  complete  restoration   of 


3l)vS  BlUTU  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

Jerusalciu  iu  thctwenty-eiglith  year  of  Xerxes;  foraccording 
to  the  erroneous  computation  of  Josepluis,  Nehemias  came 
to  Judea  under  Xerxes.  From  tliat  period  to  tlie  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ  tlic  Father  counts  4S;}  yearsj  he  exphiins  the 
last  week  as  employed  in  the  founding  of  the  Church  after 
Clirist's  ascension,  and  identifies  the  abomination  of  deso- 
lation with  the  statue  of  Caligula  erected  in  the  temi)le 
at  Jerusalem.  v.  Theodoret  (In  Dan.  ix.)  begins  with 
the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes;  the  sixty-nine  weeks 
end  at  tlie  beginning  of  Christ's  public  life,  while  the  sixty- 
two  weeks  bring  us  to  John  Hyrcanus,  under  whom  the 
legitimate  succession  of  priests  ceased.  Theodoret  repre- 
sents the  death  of  Christ  and  tlie  abrogation  of  the  Jewish 
worshij)  as  hapi)ening  in  the  middle  of  the  last  week,  and 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  he  rightly  regards  as  not 
forming  part  of  the  ])rophetic  era.  In  his  computation  he 
employs  lunar  yeai's.  <?.  E[)hrcm  (Oper,  Syr.  Ed.  Worn.  i. 
'Z'li)  is  not  concerned  about  the  numbers,  but  nuiintains 
cmi)hatically  that  the  pro[)hecy  has  a  ^lessianic  significa- 
tion. Even  the  coming  leader  is  Christ  Jesus,  o,  Jerome 
and  Augustine  contend  that  Daniel's  pro})liecy  determines 
the  time  of  the  Messias,  of  his  coming  and  his  suifering, 
but  they  decline  to  enter  into  any  calculations  (Aug.  Epist. 
189,  al.  79). 

Dan.  IX.  22-27. 

And  lie  (Gabriel)  instructed  mo,  and  spoke  to  me,  and  said  : 
"()  Daniel,  I  am  now  come  forth  to  teach  thee,  and  tliat  tliuu 
nii-^litst  iiiKU'istaiid.  From  the  bej^nniung  of  thy  ju-ayei-s  the 
wold  came  foilh,  and  I  am  come  to  show  it  to  thee,  because  thou 
art  a  inaii  of  desires  :  therefore  do  thou  mark  the  word,  and  un- 
derstand the   vision.'      Seventy    weeks  are  shortened   upon  thy 

'  Seventy  weeks.  'I'lic  lli'l)n>\v  word  rt'iKicrcd  "  week  "'  properly 
sifXuilies  the  number  seven  ;  l)ut  by  conuuon  usa^'e  it  has  conio  tu 
mean  seven  spaces  of  time  of  ecjual  len^tli,  i.e.,  a  week.  a.  It  is  evi- 
dent from  the  contents  that  in  the  i)re.-sent  passay;e  there  can  be  no 
(juestion  of  the  conmion  week  of  dnys.  h.  Since  in  the  bej^inuin^ 
of  the  ])resent  chapter  (i.\.  2)  there  is  (juestiou  of  llie  seventy  years 
spoken  of  by  Jeremias,  it  is  probable  that  iu  our  prophecy  seventy 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH  309 

peoi)le,  and  upon  thy  lioly  city,  that  transgression  may  "^  be  fin- 
ished, and  sin  may  have  an  end,  and  iniquity  may  be  abolished, 
and  everlasting  justice  may  be  brought,  and  vision  and  prophecy 
may  be  fulfilled,  and  the  ^  Saints  of  saints  may  be    anointed. 

weeks  of  years  are  hitendod.  c.  Such  weeks  of  years  were  well 
known  to  the  Jews,  as  we  see  from  their  law  of  the  Sahhath  and  the 
jubilee-year,  i.e.,  of  the  seventh  year  and  of  the  seven  times  seventh 
year,  respectively  (of.  Lev.  xxv.  2,  4,  5  ;  xxvi.  84,  35,  43  ;  II.  Par, 
xxxvi.  21).  d.  Even  the  other  nations  were  acquainted  with  the  year- 
weeks,  as  is  seen  from  the  words  of  M.  Varro  in  the  writings  of  A. 
Ciellius  :  "He  too  had  already  entered  the  twelfth  year-week."  e. 
The  opinion  of  some  of  the  habhinic  writers  that  jubilee- weeks  are 
intended  in  Daniel's  prophecy  is  not  supported  by  a  single  analogy  in 
other  writings  of  either  Hebrews  or  Cientiles,  and  has  been  introduced 
through  theological  prejudice.  It  is  then  evident  that  the  prophet 
speaks  of  year-weeks  in  his  prediction. 

The  numeral  "  seventy  "  follows  the  noun  "  weeks  "  in  the  Hebrew 
text,  so  as  to  render  the  word  emphatic.  The  ol)vious  sense  of  the 
l)assage  supposes  that  the  series  of  years  is  to  be  taken  continuously, 
so  that  those  rationalistic  writers  who  place  i)art  of  the  seventy  weeks 
in  one  century,  part  in  another,  offend  against  the  iii'st  and  funda- 
mental principle  of  hermeneutics.  Another  reason  for  taking  the 
seventy  years  in  one  continuous  series  is  suggested  by  the  Hebrew 
verb  rendered  in  our  version  by  "are  shortened."  For  in  its  original 
form  it  is  in  the  singular  number,  so  that  it  supposes  the  "seventy 
weeks"  to  constitute  one  unit.  A  more  accurate  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  verb  woidd  be  "  are  cut  off,"  i.e.,  "  are  decreed." 

■■'  May  be  finished.  The  word  in  our  version  gives  the  meaning  of 
the  Hebrew  text  rather  than  its  literal  wording.  For  if  we  retain 
the  Hebrew  consonants  without  considering  that  the  Piel-form  of  the 
verb  wdiich  is  indicated  by  the  vowels  does  ncjt  commonly  occur,  we 
ought  to  render  "  may  be  closed  ;  "  on  the  other  hand,  if  we  retain 
the  present  vowels  and  change  one  of  the  consonants  so  as  to  obtain 
a  verb  that  is  regularly  suscei)til)le  of  those  vowels,  we  must  render 
the  word  "may  be  consunmiiited."  The  Septuagint,  Theodotion, 
Jerome,  and  others  have  adhered  to  this  latter  method.  The  verb  in 
the  next  phrase,  "  may  huve  an  end,"  has  occasioned  a  similar  ditii- 
culty  :  if  the  Hebrew  consonants  are  kept  and  the  vowels  changed 
so  as  to  obtain  a  form  that  is  granunatically  correct,  we  must  trans- 
late the  word  "may  be  sealed."  If  the  jjrocess  is  reversed,  i.e.,  if 
the  vowels  arc  kei)t  and  the  consonants  changed  so  as  to  do  justice 
to  the  exigencies  of  graumiar,  we  must  render  the  text  "may  be 
abolished."  The  jjresent  English  rendering,  therefore,  gives  the 
meaning  of  the  Hebrew  text,  whatever  correction  be  adopted. 

•*  Saint  of  saints,  (i.  If  Daniel  had  intended  to  exi)ress  the  Vulgate 
rendering,  he  would  have  written  "  qadesh  qedashim,"  instead  of  the 
actual  reading  "  qodesh  qodashim."  h.  Nor  can  it  be  maintained 
that  the  jn'ophet  refers  to  the  "holy  of  holies"  of  the  temple  ;  for 
in  order  to  e.\i)ress  this  meaning  the  Hebrew  phrase  would  have 
needed  the  dehnite  article  "  (jodesh  hacjcpidashim  "  (cf.  Ex.  xxvi. 
83  ;  Ezech,  xlii.  13,  etc.).     e.  Hence  the  proper  and  literal  meaning 


310  JSIliril   OF  THE  Mh'S,SIA8. 

Know  Uinii  tliori'fori!  uiid  hiki-  iioticc,  lliat  rnmi*  the  going  forth 

of  tin;  Hebrew  text  is  "  u  lioly  of  holies,"  i.v.,  "something  most 
holy."  ThiTe  is,  however,  nothing  to  ])revent  us  from  luiderstiindiiig 
the  expression  nietoiiyiiiiciiliy  of  a  jierson  ;  for  siieli  u  tigure  is  not 
uncommon  in  llei)re\v  (ef.  I.  I'lir.  xxiii.  14).  Even  tlie  jsew  'I'esta- 
nient  ofTi^rs  similar  figures  of  speech,  as  may  be  seen  in  l.,uke  i.  33 
((Jn^ek  text).  In  this  acceptation  the  Hebrew  expression  has  been 
rendered  in  the  \'ulgate,  and  in  the  versions  following  it. 

■*  From  the  going  forth  of  the  word.  These  words  indicate  tliat  the 
j)rophet  is  abiiut  to  give  tlu'  term  from  which  the  seventy  weeks 
should  1)(^  reckoned.  'I'wo  diliiculties  ]>resent  themselves  in  connec- 
tion with  this  subject  :  d.  Acc(trding  to  tlu^  Hebrew  accents  we  should 
read  :  "  l<"'rom  the  going  forth  of  the  word  to  build  up  .lerusak'm 
again,  unto  Christ  the  prince,  there  shall  be  seven  weeks  ;  and  sixty- 
two  wei-ks  and  tin;  street  shall  be  built  again.  .  .  ."  It  appears  then 
that  the  anointed  ])rince  is  predicted  as  coming  after  seven  weeks, 
becau.se  the  great  pause  is  found  after  the  latter  clause.  But,  on  the 
othiM'  liand,  this  interpretation  of  the  ))r(>])hecy  is  not  ])robable  in 
itself,  does  not  lit  into  the  context,  and  has  ln-en  proved  to  be  falsi; 
by  the  historical  event.  We  must  then  nuiintain  that  tlii'  Hel>rew 
accent  Athmich  has  not  its  usual  disjunctive  value  ;  similar  occur- 
rences of  Athnach  without  disjunctive  value  are  found  in  Dan.  ix.  2  ; 
I'rov.  vi.  2(i  ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  (Ixxxiv.)  U,  so  that  our  interi>rttation  does 
not  rest  on  a  mere  theological  necessity,  b.  'J"he  second  dilHculty 
connected  with  the  claust;  ''  I'rom  the  going  forth  of  the  word  "  con- 
cerns till'  identity  of  the  decree  from  which  tin-  seventy  weeks  are 
reckoned.  This  question  has  been  answered  in  the  most  various 
ways. 

(I.  Hengstenberg,  Ueinke,  etc.,  maintain  that  the  decree  from  whicli 
the  prophet  reckons  is  the  same  tis  that  of  wiiich  the  archangel  (ia- 
briel  .said:  "From  the  beginning  of  thy  i)rayers  the  WoHU  came 
forth  ;"  in  other  words,  it  is  the  divine  decree  concerning  the  resto- 
ration of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple.  <r.  Hut  this  answer  to  the 
(pu'stioii  is  not  satisfactory  on  account  of  its  very  subtlety.  fJ.  Tlie 
Hebrew  text  does  not  permit  us  to  adlu're  to  this  opinion,  because 
the  decree  from  which  tlie  prophet  reckons  is  called  "a  decree," 
while  it  should  be  called  "  the  decree,"  if  it  were  identical  with 
that  ))reviously  nu-ntioiu'd.  We  must  therefore  exi)lain  the  text 
as  referring  to  one  of  the  four  royal  decrees  which  w<'re  issued 
concerning  Jerusalem  and  the  temple. 

b.  'Die  lirst  royal  decree  regarding  Jerusalem  was  issued  by  Cyrus 
in  the  year  ");}(;  ij.c.  (cf.  1.  Ksdr.  i.  1,  *2).  It  is  true  that  Ksdrasspeaks 
only  al)out  a  decre*;  concerning  the  temple  :  "  He  hath  charged 
me  to  build  him  a  house  in  Jerusalem;"  but  the  restoration  of  the 
temi)le  would  imply  the;  rebuilding  of  the  city.  This  is  expressly 
stat<;d  in  Is.  xlv.  I'S  :  "  I  have  raised  him  [Cyrus]  uj)  to  justici',  and 
I  will  direct  all  his  ways ;  he  shall  build  my  city.  .  .  ."  The 
])rophef  .\gj^eus  (i.  4)  su)>poses  too  that  the  city  had  lu'en  restored 
ixdore  the  temple  was  rebuilt.  "  Is  it  time  for  you,"  thi-  jirophet 
says,  "to  dwell  in  ceiled  houses,  and  this  hou.se  lie  dt'scdate  V " 
It.   But,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes,  al- 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'   BIRTH.  31 1 

of  the  word  to  build  up  Jerusalem  again'  unto  Christ  the  prince 

most  a  full  century  after  Cyrus,  the  temple  was  still  in  ruins.  For 
Nehemias,  the  son  of  Ilelchias,  testifies  (II.  Esdr.  i.  8)  :  "They  that 
have  remained,  and  are  left  of  the  Captivity  there  in  the  province, 
are  in  great  afiiiction  and  reproach  ;  and  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  is 
hroken  down,  and  the  gates  thereof  are  hurnt  with  fire."  p.  Be- 
sides, Cyrus'  decree  says  nothing  of  the  restoration  of  the  city,  while 
Daniel's  decree  is  explicit  in  its  mention  of  it.  All  that  is  implicitly 
contained  in  the  explicit  decree  regarding  the  restoration  of  the  tem- 
ple may  be  reduced  to  the  erection  of  a  number  of  dwelling-houses, 
without  in  any  way  extending  to  the  formal  building  of  a  city.  ;'. 
And  if  we  adopt  this  view,  we  are  enabled  to  exx)lain  the  texts  of 
Isaias  and  Aggeus  as  referring  to  those  habitations  which  later  on 
became  the  nucleus  of  the  restored  city. 

c.  The  second  royal  decree  w'as  issued  by  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystas- 
pis,  in  the  year  515)  u.c.  It  is  recorded  at  length  in  I.  Esdr.  vi.  1-12, 
and  is  evidently  nothing  but  a  repetition  of  Cyrus'  decree  for  the 
restoration  of  the  temple.  In  fact,  it  states  that  Cyrus'  conunands 
had  not  yet  been  complied  with,  and  hints  at  some  of  the  obstacles 
that  may  have  prevented  its  ready  execution.  No  noted  authority 
lias  maintained  that  I^aiiiel's  seventy  weeks  are  to  be  computed  from 
this  decree,  and  all  the  arguments  which  militate  against  the  identity 
of  the  prophet's  decree  with  that  of  Cyrus  are  equally  valid  against 
its  identity  with  that  of  Darius. 

d.  The  royal  decree  from  which  Daniel  reckoned  his  seventy  weeks 
is  by  Pusey  (Lectures  on  Daniel,  pp.  ICl)  f.)and  Delattre  (De  I'Authen- 
ticite  du  livre  dt;  Daniel,  ])p.  62-04)  identified  with  that  which  Arta- 
xerxes  issued  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign.  The  decree  belongs, 
therefore,  to  the  year  458  u.c,  and  is  duly  recorded  in  I.  Esdr.  vii. 
14  ff.  a.  Though  we  freely  grant  that  the  restoration  of  the  city  is 
implicitly  contained  in  the  royal  grant,  it  is  still  noticeable  that  it  is 
not  explicitly  mentioned,  /i.  The  judges  that  Avere  to  lie  established 
according  to  vv.  25,  26  might  well  exercise  their  judicial  ])ower  in 
settling  the  quarrels  among  the  settlers  around  the  new  sanctuary. 
A  regularly  constituted  city  is  not  necessarily  presupposed,  y.  If  in 
I.  ICsdr.  iv.  12  the  walls  are  said  to  have  been  restored,  it  ajipears 
from  II.  Esdr.  ii.  3  (cf.  II.  Esdr.  vi.  0,  7)  that  the  former  statement  is 
a  mere  calumny  of  the  Jews'  political  enemies,  d.  The  decree  issued 
in  the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes  may  be  called  a  mere  repetition 
of  the  decree  issued  in  the  seventh  year ;  still  it  must  also  be  kept  in 
mind  that  before  the  second  decree  Nehemias  asked  leave  to  return 
to  Jerusalem,  which  he  promised  to  rebuild  (II.  Esdr.  ii.  5). 

e.  The  fourth  royal  decree  that  has  been,  and  still  is,  variously 
identified  with  the  i>ro]>lietic  (lecr(>e  of  Daniel  (cf.  Ilengstenberg, 
lieinke,  etc.),  was  issued  by  Arfaxeixes  in  the  tweiilieth  year  of  his 
reign,  i.e.,  445  a.c.  a.  This  decree  was  a  formal  royal  edict  (II.  Esdras 
ii.  8,  9),  such  as  is  sui)posed  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  Daniel  ;  /3.  more- 
over, it  was  tlie  first  decree  which  expressly  granted  leave  to  restore 
the  city  with  its  walls,  gates,  and  fortifications  (II.  Esdr.  ii.  3,  5,  13, 
17  ;  iii.  1  f.).  ;'.  From  I.  Esdr.  ix.  9  it  appears  that  at  the  same 
time  permission  was  granted  to  put  up  fences,  etc.,  for  the  protection 


312  BIIiTU  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

there  shall  be  scvoii  weeks,  and  sixty-two  weeks,  and  the  street 

of  the  vineyards.  Thus  fur  everything  jn'ovi^s  that  Daniel's  decree 
must  i)e  identified  with  this  second  (k'cree  of  Artaxerxes. 

\Ve  sliall  see,  however,  that  there  are  vi-ry  si)ecious  chronological 
difficulties  militating  against  such  an  identification.  But  leaving 
fiiese  for  the  present,  we  must  show  that  there  are  many  historical 
notices  in  Sacred  ycrii>turc  whicli  well  agree  with  the  view  wliich 
identities  the  decree  of  Daniel  with  either  the  first  or  the  second  of 
Artaxerxes.  a.  After  the  issuing  of  these  decrees  the  Jews  liegan 
to  restori!  the  holy  city  with  its  walls  and  fortitications  (II.  Esdr. 
iii.);  all  tliis  tht^y  had  to  do  under  distressing  circumstances,  the 
Samaritans  being  a  constant  source  of  annoyance  to  them  (II.  Esdr. 
iv.  7-2;i ;  vi.  1-15).  According  to  the  wording  of  the  i)roi)hecy  we 
may  well  suppose  that  the  restoration  occupied  a  space  of  seven 
weeks,  or  forty-nine  years,  (i.  After  the  further  lapse  of  sixty-two 
weeks  ai)peared  tlie  Messias  at  the  Jordan,  was  baptized  by  J(din, 
and  prociainied  by  tlie  voice  of  the  heavenly  Father  as  his  beloved 
sou,  in  whom  he  was  well  pleased  (Matt.  iii.  1(1,  17).  For  the  oi)inion 
of  some  of  the  Fathers  who  look  upon  the  Messias'  birth  as  the  term 
of  the  prophecy  cannc.t,  be  reconciled  with  the  chronolegical  rt'tpiire- 
ments  of  the  prophet.  The  opinion  which  sees  in  the  anointing 
of  "something  most  holy"  the  foundation  of  the  Church  is  at 
least  h^ss  probablt?  than  our  view,  which  identifies  this  unction  with 
the  ])ublic  and  otliclal  >nis>ion  of  the  Messias,  taking  place  as  it  did 
at  till'  .Jordan,  before  the  eyes  of  innumerabh!  witnesses  (cf.  I,uke  i. 
;!.") ;  Acts  iii.  14).  y.  During  tlie  cour.se  of  the  last  week  the  M*'ssias 
was  slain,  and  while  1h^  expired  on  the  cross  the  tearing  of  the  veil 
announct'd  the  abrogation  of  the  Old  Testament  sacrifices,  and  finally 
fletermined  the  destruction  of  tin;  peojile,  which  had  till  then  belonged 
to  the  .Messias.  This  fornuil  rejection  on  the  ])art  of  (Jod  imi)lie(l  an 
irreparable  destruction  of  the  nation,  which  attained  its  timil  comi)le- 
tion  when  tlui  Uoman  armies  under  Titus  swept  away  the  city  and 
the  temple  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  (5.  In  order  to  console  the 
jK'ople,  iiowevt'r,  even  in  tlu^  height  of  their  allliction,  (iabriel  ]ire- 
dicts  that  the  Messias  will  during  the  course  of  the  last  week  confirm 
his  covenant  with  many  of  the  jx-ople,  so  that  these  at  least  will  be- 
conu;  the  hai)])y  sharers  of  the  Messianic  redemption.  And  history, 
in  its  turn,  tells  us  that  many  were  converted  to  Christ  by  tin-  power 
of  his  word,  and  that  nuiny  more  accei)ted  his  teaching  through  the 
ministry  of  the  ajjostles. 

'-  Unto  Christ  the  prince.  Tlie  Hebrew  ]dira.se  "  Ma.shiach  nagid  " 
has  been  variously  interpreted  :  a.  Some  translate  "  unto  the  anointed 
])rince."  Hut  in  order  to  have  this  meaning  tlu»  adjeetive  "  mash- 
iach  "  should  follow  the  noun  "nagid."  /».  Others  have  looked 
ui)on  "  Mashiach  "  as  a  proper  name,  which  lias  on  that  account  no 
article  acconi]>aiiying  it.  Similar  )>hras(M  in  which  other  words  are 
thus  construed  jis  ])roper  names  niiiy  be  seen  in  Num.  xxiv.  10;  I's. 
xliv.  (xlv.)  1  ;  ixxi.  (Ixxii.)  1  ;  Zacli".  iii.  S  ;  Jo.  iv.  LM.  Ihit  if  this 
were  true,  the  noun  "nagid"  which  follows  "Mashiach"  should 
have  the  delinite  article,  r  Theodotion  and  his  followers  have 
therefore  jTcferred  to  r<-ndei'  the  phrase  as  "  unto  an  anointed  one,  a 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH.  318 

shall  be  built  again,  and  the  ^  walls  in  troublesome  times.  And 
after  sixty-two  weeks '  Christ  shall  be  slain,  and  the '  peoi)le  that 

prince."  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  following  sentence 
the  same  "  Mashiach  "  is  again  introduced,  and  again  without  the 
definite  article.  Now  if  "  Mashiach  "  were  not  a  projier  name,  it  ought 
to  have  the  definite  article — at  least,  where  it  occur.s  for  the  second 
time.  d.  It  is,  therefore,  preferable  to  consider  Daniel's  way  of 
speaking  in  the  present  passage  as  poetical  ;  hence  the  article  before 
tlie  noun  in  apposition  to  the  proper  name  has  been  onntted  through 
a  poetic  license  (cf.  Corluy,  Spicil.,  i.  p.  480  ;  Pusey,  Lectures  on 
Daniel,  pp.  173  f.;  Dan.  viii.  14). 

'^  The  walls,  a.  The  Hebrew  word  "charuts"  is,  properly  speak- 
ing, the  passive  participle  of  the  verb  "  charats,"  to  cut,  to  decree. 
Hence  its  literal  meaning  is  "decree."  a.  It  is  rendered  in  this 
sense  in  Is.  x.  23  and  Joel  iil.  4.  /i.  The  words  derived  from  the  same 
root,  which  occur  in  the  context  of  the  present  prophecy,  have  been 
interpreted  in  a  like  manner.  But  this  interpretation  introduces  into 
the  present  passage  a  hard  and  unexpected  parenthesis.  I).  Hence 
other  writ?:;rs  maintain  that  the  word  "charuts  "  in  the  present  pas- 
sage is  equivalent  to  tht^  Chaldee  "charits, ''  fosse,  aqueduct,  or 
wall  and  fortification.  Theodotion,  the  Vulgate,  the  Syriac  version, 
and  the  context  favor  this  rendering. 

■"  Christ.  We  maintain  that  the  Christ  (Mashiach)  spoken  of  in 
this  sentence  is  identical  with  "  Christ  the  prince  "  who  is  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  sentence.  And  we  further  maintain  that  none  but 
Christ  Jesus  is  the  person  indicated  by  both  these  expressions.  Pre- 
scinding from  the  historical  accomplishment  of  the  prophecy  in  Christ 
Jesus,  which  will  be  shown  in  another  place,  we  give  here  the  fol- 
lowing proofs  for  our  interpretation  :  a.  The  good  promised  in  the 
first  part  of  the  prophecy  is  evidently  the  Messianic  salvation.  Now 
these  benefits  are  to  come  at  the  end  of  the  seventy  weeks,  while  the 
anointed  prince  "Mashiach  nagid  "  is  to  come  at  the  beginning  of 
the  last  week,  and  the  Christ  "  the  Mashiach"  is  to  be  slain  in  the 
middle  of  the  last  week.  The  promised  benefits  are  then  connected 
with  the  "Mashiach  nagid"  and  tlie  "Mashiach;"  in  other  words, 
the  person  indicated  by  these  expressions  is  the  Messias.  b.  Though 
the  term  "Mashiach  nagid  "  may  be  conceived  as  predicated  of  a 
Jewish  king,  the  simple  "Mashiach"  was  probably  at  the  time  of 
tlie  prophet  the  consecrated  name  of  the  expected  Kedeemer  (cf.  Ps. 
xliv.  (xlv.)  8  ;  Is.  Ixi.  1  :  Luke  iv.  18  ;  Matt.  ii.  4  ;  xvi.  16 ;  xxii.  43  ; 
xxiv.  5.  23  ;  xxvi.  C3.  08  ;  Mark  xv.  32  ;  Luke  ii.  ll ;  iii.  15  ;  xxiii. 
2  ;  Jo.  i.  20,  25  ;  iii.  28  ;  iv.  25,  29  ;  vii.  26  ;  ix.  22  ;  x.  24  ;  xii.  43, 
etc.).  The  absence  of  the  article  before  the  word  "  Ma.shiach  "  is  so 
far  from  opjiosiug  our  interpictation  that  it  rather  favors  our  view. 
f.  There  is  evidently  some  kind  of  a  connection  between  the  "  Mash- 
i.ac.h  "  and  the  "most  luily  "  to  lie  anointed  during  the  course  of  the 
same  last  week.  This  connection  cannot  be  explained  any  more  satis- 
factorily than  by  identifying  "  the  most  holy  "  with  the  "  Mashiach," 
who  is  most  worthy  of  that  title  (cf.  Luke  i.  35  ;  Jo.  xvii.  19  ;  Mark 
i.  24  ;  Acts  iv.  27  ;  iii.  14  ;  Ajmic.  iii.  7).  d.  The  "  Mashiach  nagid  " 
and  the  "Mashiach"  are  opposed  to  the  "coming  leader,"  who  is 


314  BIRTH  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

shall  deny  him  .sliall  not  be  his.     And  a  people  ^vith  their  leader 

prosuinably  of  a  f()rci|;n  race  and  country,  since  lie  will  destroy  the 
city  and  the  teniide.  Hence  the  "Mashiacli  nay:id  "  must  be  of  the 
Jewish  nation,  the  leade^r  of  the  chosen  people  of  (Jod,  and  tliert?fore 
the  Messias.  c.  In  this  manner  too  the  clause  "  he  shall  confirm  the 
covenant  with  many  "  is  satisfactorily  explained,  while  in  any  other 
hypothesis  it  remains  iMexplicalilc 

•^  And  the  people  that  shall  deny  him  shall  not  be  his.  This  passa/?e 
has  a  ipiite  diff<'rent  readin<f  in  the  llel)rew  text ;  for  tliere  wc;  liavo 
only  the  two  words:  "'en  lo  "  (not  for  him).  The  various  interpre- 
tations j^iven  of  the  clause  may  be  classed  under  two  In-adinjifs  :  n. 
The  phrase  is  not  (dlii^tical.  1.  It  means  "  nothing;:  unto  him,"  so 
that  th(^  whole  sentence  reads  :  "Christ  shall  be  slain,  and  nothing  is 
left  him  after  his  death."  The  Ileljrew  form  of  the  negative  found 
in  this  phrase  does  not  adtuit  of  such  a  rendering.  2.  We  must 
transhite  "  not  for  himself,"  so  tiiat  the  pas.sage  means:  "Christ 
shall  1)1!  slain,  and  not  for  himself."  a.  A  similar  conception  of 
Christ's  death  is  found  in  Is.  liii.  10.  fi.  Still,  the  Hebrew  negative 
found  in  the  ])rcsent  ])lirase  is  not  a  mere  negative  particle,  but 
means  "  then!  is  not."  y.  On  the  other  hand,  this  negative  term  may 
have  b(!en  used  instead  of  the  common  one  "  lo,"  in  order  to  avoid 
cacophony  (lo  lo),  though  the  latter  occurs  in  Dan.  xi.  17.  <5.  If  it 
be  .said  that  no  one  in  the  Old  Testament  is  repn-st-nted  as  having 
died  for  his  own  benefit,  it  must  he  kf]>t  in  mind  that  he  is  truly  con- 
ceiv(Ml  and  represented  as  having  ilifd  fi>r  his  own  advantage  who 
gains  lift'  ctfrnal  by  his  tem])iii-ai  death.  The  history  of  tlu!  seven 
brothers  dying  for  the  ohseivance  of  their  law  fully  shows  that 
such  a  coiice])tion  was  not  fon^ign  to  the  J«nvlsh  mind.  55.  Others 
have  rendered  the  i)lirase  :  "not  on  his  own  account,"  so  that  the 
j)assage  means  :  "Chri.st  shall  be  slain,  hut  not  on  his  own  account," 
i.e.,  "not  on  account  of  any  fault  of  his."  n.  it  must  Im!  granted 
that  till!  II{!brew  ])reposition  emidoyed  in  the  phrase  iinw  uinler  con- 
sideration may  havc!  such  a  meaning  (cf.  (Jen  iv.  2:5  ;  .Mich.  i.  VI  ; 
Num.  xvi.  154;  Joh  xxxvii.  1),  fi.  but  the  cominon  meaning  "  there 
is  not  "  of  the  negative  found  in  the  same  i)Iirase,  ;'.  and  the  un- 
common and  round-about  way  of  expressing  the  thought  impTn-d  in 
such  an  interpretation  render  this  opinion  very  improbable.  4. 
Others  again  understand  the  Hebrew  jihrase  as  meaning  :  "and  no 
one  is  unto  him."  a.  But  though  the  meaning  of  the  pa.ssag(! 
"Christ  .shall  be  slain,  and  tlu-re  is  no  onc!  unto  him  to  aid  or  defend 
liim,"  is  suiliciently  ])robable,  /j.  still  tht>  Hebrew  negative  i>article 
with  which  we  have  to  deal  has  this  meaning  only  when  the  person 
in  (picstiou  is  named  in  the  context  (cf.  liam.  i.  2). 

I).  The  second  class  of  interpreters  who  have  expressed  an  opinion 
<m  the  meaning  of  the  lii-brew  jihra.se  have  regarded  it  as  an  ellijise. 
For  it  can  liardly  be  said  that  a  word  has  fallen  out  of  the  i)riniitiv(> 
text,  since  all  the  oldest  versions  remh'r  the  ])hrase  as  l>rief  and  con- 
ci.se  as  it  i;.  found  in  the  Hebrew  text  (L.\.\.,  Theodot.,  Acpiil.,  Syr.). 
((.  Some  have  therefore  suppiie<l  "people."  reading:  "  Christ  sliall  be 
slain,  and  there  shall  be  no  more  a  people  unto  liim  "  (\'ulg..  I'usey, 
etc.).     li.  Others  have   preferred   "judgment,"  so  that  they  render: 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH.  315 

that  shall  come  sh;ill  destroy  the  city  and  the  sanctuary,  and  °  the 
end  thereof  shall  be  waste,  and  after  the  end  of  the  war,  the  ap- 
pointed desolation.  And  he  shall  confirm  the  covenant  with 
many,  in  one  week,  and  in  the  half  of  tlie  week  the  victim  and 
the  sacrifice  sliall  fail,  and '"  there  shall  be  in  the  temple  the 
abomination  of  desolation,  and  the"  desolation  shall  continue 
even  to  the  consummation  and  to  the  end." 

"Christ  sliall  be  slain,  and  there  be  no  judgment  nnto  him,"  i.e., 
lie  shall  die  unjustly  (Tlieodot.,  several  Greek  Fathers),  y.  Others 
again  supply  "  the  city  and  the  sanctuary,"  S.  or  "a  Messias,"  £.  or 
"thatwliich  had  belonged  to  him."  It  is  evident  that  according  to 
tliese  suggestions  we  obtain  the  meanings:  "Christ  shall  be  slain, 
and  the  city  and  sanctuary  shall  not  be  his;"  or  "  Christ  shall  be 
slain,  and  there  shall  be  no  Messias  (Redeemer)  unto  him  ;"  or,  finally, 
"Christ  shall  be  slain,  and  what  had  been  his  shall  be  his  no  more." 
This  last  rendering  ai)pears  to  be  more  satisfactory  than  any  of  the 
preceding  ones.  For  by  the  death  of  Christ  the  temporal  ruin  of  the 
Jewish  ])eople,  wliicli'liad  belonged  to  Christ,  was  definitely  settled. 

'  And  the  end  thereof  shall  he  waste.  A  literal  rendering  of  the 
lleljrcw  tfxt  will  serve  as  commentary  on  the  following  clauses: 
"  And  in  that  warlike  inundation  shall  consist  the  final  ruin  of  city 
and  temi>le,  and  the  war  shall  last  till  the  destruction  is  complete, 
and  the  decreed  devastation  shall  come  to  pass." 

'"  And  there  shall  be  in  the  temple  the  abomination  of  desolation. 
The  llelirew  text  rendered  literally  reads :  "and  upon  the  wing  of 
abominations."  But  the  word  which  literally  means  "  wing,"  is  also 
used  to  signify  "  extremity"  (cf.  Is.  xi.  12  ;  xxiv.  16  ;  Ezech.  vii.  3). 
The  Creek  word  meaning  "pinnacle"  is  closely  related  to  this  ex- 
pression (cf.  Matt.  iv.  5  ;  Luke  iv.  9),  as  may  be  seen  in  Suidas  and 
Hesycliius.  We  are  therefore  fully  justified  in  rendering:  "and 
iipon  the  pinnacle  (the  height)  of  abomination."  But  the  question  as 
to  what  is  meant  by  these  words  is  not  so  easily  settled,  a.  The 
phrase  denotes  the  Homan  ensigns  and  banners,  and  especially  their 
winged  eagles  to  which  the  armies  paid  divine  worshij) ;  the  Romans 
are  represented  as  approaching  upon  these  wings.  This  explanation 
is  supported  by  I.  Mach.  i.  54  (Vulg.  57);  Matt.  xxiv.  15;  xxiv. 
28  ;  Mark  xiii.  14  ;  Luke  xxi.  28.  It  must,  however,  be  noted  that 
Matt.  xxiv.  15  can  hardly  be  adduced  in  favor  of  this  interpretation, 
since  "  the  holy  place  "  in  the  language  of  the  Machabees  and  of  the 
LXX.  means  the  temple,  and  not  the  surroundings  of  Jerusalem,  and 
since  Christ  and  the  Evangelists  most  i)robal)ly  adopted  the  phrase- 
ology of  the  former  (cf.  F.  d'Envieu,  iii.  pp.  1015  ft'.),  h.  The  ex- 
pression "wing  of  abominations"  indicates  the  temple,  and  the 
abominations  are  the  vices  of  the  Hebrew  people  with  which  they 
polluted  the  sanctuary.  Jer.  vii.  8(J  speaks  of  the  Jewish  depravity 
in  a  similar  manner.  This  interpretation  is  supported  by  Dan.  xi. 
31;  II.  Mach.  iv.  13-17  ;  Matt.  xxiv.  15,  16  ;  Flavius  Josephus,  Bell. 
Jud.  IV.  vi.  3.  Both  of  these  explanations  are  therefore  really 
prol)able. 

"  The  desolation  shall  continue.     A  paraphrase  of  the  Hebrew  text 


316  BIRTH  OF  THE  ME8SIA8. 


Corollaries. 

Chronological  Agreement  between  Prophecy  and 

Fulfilment.  —  1.  Of  the  numy  attempts  tlmt  luive  been 
made  to  make  tlie  pro])hecy  chronologically  agree  with  its 
fulfilment  we  may  mention  the  following  fonr  (cf,  Corluy, 
Spicil.  i.  pp.  498  ff.): 

a.  According  to  Pusey  (Lectnrcs  on  Daniel,  pp.  IGO  IT.) 
the  term  from  which  the  seventy  weeks  must  be  reckoned 
is  the  first  decree  of  Artiixerxes,  issued  in  the  year  457  i$.c. 
The  end  of  the  G9  weeks  (483  years)  falls  then  in  the  year 
'^'G  A.i).,  i.e.,  at  the  beginning  of  the  pul)lic  life  of  Jesus; 
after  three  years  more  Jesus  died  on  the  cross,  and  thus 
abolished  Old  Testament  sacrifice  and  worship;  during  the 
course  of  the  same  week  he  instituted  his  Church,  and  thus 
confiruicd  his  new  covenant  with  many.  If  it  be  remem- 
bered that  our  present  era  prol)ab1y  begins  about  three  or 
four  years  later  than  it  really  should  do,  the  above-men- 
tioned 2Gth  year,  in  which  the  public  life  of  Jesus  begins, 
will  l)ecome  the  29th  or  30th  year  of  his  life — a  result  agree- 
ing with  Luke  iii.  1. 

Thus  far  we  have  merely  proposed  and  explained  the 
first  theory;  we  must  noAV  examine  the  two  suppositions 
which  are  assumed  in  it.  1.  The  decree  of  Artaxerxes  is 
placed  in  the  year  457  B.C.  2.  Our  Christian  era  is  as- 
sumed to  begin  several  years  after  the  birth  of  Christ. 

1.  According  to  I.  Esdr.  vii.  8  flp.,  the  first  decree  of  Ar- 
taxerxes was  issued  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign;  in 
order,  then,  to  coincide  with  the  year  457  u.r.  Artaxerxes 

will  otTcr  tlic  best  coiiiiiu'ntnrv  oti  tin'  last  part  of  Oanit'l's  ]>r(ii>luM'y  : 
" 'i'lie  last  wt'i'k  will  lead  iiianv  (rnllowiiifr  Cliiisl's  and  tlif  aixtstU-s' 
instructions)  to  tlir  new  M«'ssianir  oovrnant,  and  in  the  middle  of  that 
week  (Christ's  bloody  sarrilice  on  the  cross)  will  abolish  t'le  .Jewish 
sacrilices  and  worship.  And  (a  few  years  later)  thedJonian)  destroy- 
ers will  ai)proach  on  the  ])inions  of  their  abominable  eatrles,  and  they 
will  press  their  (•on(piest  to  such  an  extent  that  the  destruction, 
which  had  been  decided  by  an  irrevocable  ilecree.  will  pour  itself  out 
upon  the  devastated  place." 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH.  317 

must  have  begun  to  reign  in  4()4  or  465  B.C.  Our  inquiry 
must  therefore  be,  wiiether  history  confirms  or,  at  least, 
permits,  this  date  for  the  beginning  of  Artaxerxes'  reigu, 
a.  Diodorus  Siculus  testifies  (xi.  09)  that  Xerxes  was  killed 
in  the  fourth  year  of  the  78th  olympiad,  i.e.,  4G5  years  be- 
fore the  common  era.  Now  Artaxerxes  began  to  reiefn 
seven  months  after  the  death  of  Xerxes.  But  we  can  show 
independently  that  Artaxerxes  began  his  reign  between 
the  fifth  and  the  ninth  month  after  the  death  of  Xerxes. 
For  in  his  twentieth  year  the  month  Casleu  (ninth  month) 
preceded  the  month  Nisan  (first  month)  according  to  II. 
Esdr.  i.  1;  ii.  1;  again  Nisan  (first  month)  precedes  in  the 
same  reign  Ab  (fifth  month)  according  to  I.  Esdr.  vii.  7,  9. 
The  succession  of  montlis  in  Artaxerxes'  reign  was  there- 
fore ninth,  first,  fifth,  i.e.,  he  must  have  begun  his  reign 
between  the  fifth  and  the  ninth  niontli,  i.e.,  between  Ab 
and  Casleu  464  r.c.  h.  Tlie  Ptolemean  canon  and  Euse- 
bius  place  the  death  of  Xerxes  between  Dec.  466  and  Dec. 
465  (cf.  Migne,  t.  xix.  pp.  4T3-476  in  Chron.  2).  Hence  we 
obtain  nearly  the  same  result  as  from  the  above  testimony. 
c.  Manetho  testifies  that  Xerxes  reigned  21,  Artaxerxes  41 
years  (cf.  Jul.  Afric.  ap.  Syncell.  p.  75) ;  Diodorus  gives 
the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  as  lasting  40  years;  Thucydides  has 
it  that  Artaxerxes  died  in  424  or  425  B.C.,  and  all  historians 
agree  that  Xerxes  began  to  reign  in  485,  i.e.,  in  the  first 
year  of  the  seventy-fourth  olympiad,  or  270  u.c.  Hence 
all  historical  testimony  points  to  the  year  465  or  464  as  the 
first  year  of  Artaxerxes'  reign. 

2.  The  second  supposition  implied  in  the  first  theory  of 
agreement  between  Daniel's  prophecy  and  its  fulfilment 
makes  our  current  Christian  era  begin  several  years  after 
the  birth  of  Christ.  This  supposition  too  is  not  only 
permitted  but  rather  confirmed  by  historical  testimony. 
a.  According  to  a  common  patristic  tradition  Jesus  died 
ujuler  the  consulate  of  the  Gemini,  i.e.,  782  u.c.  or  29  a.d. 
Now  according  to  8t.  John  the  public  life  of  Jesus  em- 
braced the  celebration  of  at  least  three  or  probably  four 


318  BIRTH  OF  THE  MESSTAS. 

Eastor  fcstiviticis  (Jo.  ii.  lii;  vi.  4;  xiii.  1 ;  v.  1).  Hence  his 
public  life  must  have  begun  in  789  or  788  u.c.  (2G  or  25 
A.i).).  Again,  the  Gospel  of  .St.  Luke  testifies  that  Jesus 
was  about  thirty  years  old  when  he  began  his  public  life 
(Luke  iii.  23).  Our  common  Christian  era  therefore  must 
Ijegin  its  reckoning  about  four  years  after  the  birth  of 
Cln-ist.  I).  8t.  Luke  iii.  1  tells  us  that  the  Baptist's  minis- 
try bt'gan  in  the  fifteentli  year  of  Tiberius  Ca\sar;  since 
Jesus  did  not  begin  his  public  life  long  after  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Baptist,  his  ministry  must  have  l)egun  about 
the  same  year.  The  fact  that  the  fifteenth  year  of  Til)erius' 
reign  is  782  u.c.  proves  nothing  against  our  position,  since 
the  evangelist  includes  Tiberius'  proconsular  reign,  which 
the  Senate  decreed  for  him  in  7(54  u.c.  (cf.  Tacit.  Ann. 
i.  3;  Velleius  Paterculus,  Hist.  Kom.  ii.  121;  Suetonius, 
Tiber,  xx.  21).  Hence  the  fifteenth  year  is  778  or  779  u.c, 
which  date  agrees  with  that  arrived  at  by  the  preceding 
line  of  aj'gument.  c.  A  third  argument  proving  that  our 
common  Christian  era  begins  several  years  after  the  birtli 
of  Christ  is  derived  from  the  year  of  Herod's  death.  This 
occurred  in  April,  750  u.c,  so  that  Christ  cannot  have  been 
born  later  than  749  u.c;  since  now  the  common  era  begins 
with  that  of  Dionysius  P]xiguus,  i.e.,  with  754  or  753  u.c, 
it  follows  that  it  starts  tiiree  or  four  years  after  Christ's 
birth  (cf.  Patrizi,  De  Evang.  Dissert.  20,  47,  51  libri  iii.). 

b.  Vitringa  (Sacrar.  Observ.  vi.  1-5),  Hengstenberg, 
Reinke,  Bade,  and  other  scholars  are  of  opinion  that  in 
computing  the  terms  of  the  prophecy  of  Daniel  we  must 
adhere  to  the  computation  of  the  present  Christian  era, 
i.e.,  that  our  current  Christian  era  begins  neither  later  nor 
earlier  than  the  year  of  Christ's  birth.  Th(>  Lord's  bap- 
tism, therefore,  occurred  in  the  year  782  u.c  The  term 
from  which  the  G9  weeks  must  be  computed  is  not  the 
first  decree  of  Artaxerxes,  issued  in  the  seventh  year  of  his 
reign,  but  his  second  decree,  issued  in  his  twentieth  year. 
For  the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes'  reign  is  none  other 
than  455  u.c.,  or  2!i!t  u.c     Adding  the  09  weeks  or  the  483 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH.  319 

years  to  399,  we  obtain  the  above  782  u.c,  i.e.,  the  year  of 
Christ's  baptism  according  to  the  common  era. 

It  is  evident  that  tlie  two  suppositions  implied  in  this 
view  are:  1.  that  Artaxerxes  began  his  reign  in  475  u.c; 
2.  that  the  common  reckoning  of  our  current  Christian 
era  is  fully  correct.  Both  of  these  assumptions  are  con- 
firmed by  learned  historical  investigations. 

1.  Artaxerxes  began  his  reign  in  475,  because:  a.  After 
the  tenth  year  of  Xerxes'  reign  history  is  entirely  silent 
about  him.  Ctesias  tells  only  one  event  of  his  life  after 
the  fifth  year  of  his  reign,  and  Herodotus'  last  notice  of 
Xerxes  concerns  the  year  47G  B.C.  b.  The  historian  Jus- 
tiiuis  has  it  (iii.  1)  that  at  the  time  of  Xerxes'  murder  Ar- 
taxerxes was  still  quite  a  boy.  It  is  true  that  according  to 
Ctesias  Artaxerxes  was  born  three  or  four  years  after 
Xerxes  had  been  made  king,  so  that  he  would  have  been 
only  about  seven  years  old  at  the  time  of  his  father's  death 
had  Xerxes  reigned  only  11  years  ;  but  then  Ctesias  is  so 
untrustworthy  in  his  chronology  that  we  may  reasonably 
follow  the  more  common  computation  regarding  the  time 
of  the  birth  of  Artaxerxes.  Accordingly,  we  may  assume 
that  Artaxerxes  was  born  three  or  four  years  before  Xerxes 
became  king;  had  Xerxes  reigned  21  years,  Artaxerxes 
would  have  been  about  25  years  old  at  the  time  of  his 
father's  death,  and  could  not  have  been  called  "quite  a 
boy."  c.  The  peace  of  Cimon,  which  all  authors  agree  to 
have  been  concluded  with  Artaxerxes,  falls  according  to 
the  testimony  of  many  in  the  year  470  B.C.,  so  that  Arta- 
xerxes must  have  been  king  at  that  early  date.  d.  Another 
argument  for  Artaxerxes'  early  accession  to  the  throne  may 
be  taken  from  the  fact  that  Tliemistocles  is  said  to  have 
taken  refuge  with  him  (cf.  Thucydides  (i.  137),  Plutarch 
(27),  Cornelius  Nepos,  Suidas,  and  the  Scholiast  of  Aris- 
tophanes). For  though  Ephorus,  Dinon,  Clitarchus,  and 
Ileraclides  maintain  that  Themistocles  fled  to  Xerxes,  the 
above-mentioned  authors  are  in  this  matter  of  much  greater 
authority.     Now  the  flight  of  Themistocles  to  the  Persian 


321)  BIRTH  OF   THE  MKSSIAS. 

court  is  placed  before  tlio  yetir  470  u.c.  by  sucli  authors  as 
Cicero  {\yx\.  VI),  Diodorus  Siculus  (xi.  35),  Eusebius 
(Chronicou  Armen.),  Thucydides  (i.  130).  The  same  may 
be  inferred  from  the  liistory  of  yEliau,  according  to  which 
Theniistocles  resisted  tlie  tyrant  Pisistratus  when  he  was 
still  a  boy.  Now  the  last  year  of  Pisistratus  was  529  B.C., 
and  Themistocles  died  when  he  was  G5  years  of  ago.  If 
we  then  suppose  that  Themistocles  was  about  8  years  old 
at  the  time  ho  resisted  Pisistratus,  he  must  have  died  about 
472  J5.C.  Conse(|uently,  Artaxerxes  must  have  begun  to 
reign  before  470,  and  in  all  probability  about  475  I5.c. 

2.  The  second  supposition  implied  in  the  present  theory 
places  the  beginning  of  our  present  Christian  era  in  the 
year  of  Christ's  birth.  This  is  proved  from  the  Oos})el  of 
►St.  Ijuke  (iii.  1,  23),  taken  together  with  the  fact  that  on  all 
medals  and  coins  the  years  of  Tiberius  begin  with  the  year 
in  which  he  Ijccame  emperor  (767  u.c).  Father  IJiess  (Das 
(leburtsjahr  C!hristi,  Herder,  ISSO,  Ergiinzungsheft)  has 
fully  developed  the  various  other  arguments  for  this  view, 
so  that  it  must  be  regarded  as  solidly  probable. 

The  second  explanation  of  the  agreement  between  proph- 
ecy and  fulfdmcnt,  as  far  as  the  seventy  weeks  of  Daniel 
are  concerned,  rests  therefore  on  historically  tenable  sup- 
positions. 

c.  A  third  theory  computes  the  seventy  weeks  from  the 
second  decree  of  Artaxerxes,  issued  in  the  year  457  u.c,  or 
297  u.c.  The  terni  to  which  the  09  weeks  reach  is  the 
baptism  of  Jesus  in  the  year  778  u.c,  or  25  a.d.  JMore 
accurately,  however,  only  08  weeks  and  5  years  lie  between 
457  and  778;  the  remaining  two  years  of  the  09  weeks 
elapse  during  the  i)u])lic  life  of  Jesus,  so  that  the  middle 
of  the  seventieth  week  falls  two  or  three  years  after  the 
death  of  Jesus.  As  to  the  victim  and  the  sacrifice,  they 
are  abolished  during  the  course  of  the  first  half  of  the 
week,  and  not  at  the  end  of  the  first  half. 

'.riiis  view  of  the  prophecy  implies:  1.  that  Artaxerxes 
began  his  reign  in  the  year  470  u.c,  so  tiiat  his  twentieth 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MES8IAS'  BIRTH  321 

year  would  be  457  B.C.,  or  297  u.c.  2.  It  supposes  that 
the  common  Christian  era  begins  several  years  after  the 
real  birth  of  Christ.  The  first  supposition  has  in  its  favor 
all  the  arguments  which  show  that  Xerxes  reigned  only 
ten  or  eleven  years;  the  second  supposition  is  supported 
by  all  the  arguments  which  are  advanced  in  order  to  prove 
that  Christ  was  born  three  or  four  years  before  the  begin- 
ning of  our  present  Christian  era. 

d.  Wallon  has  fornuilated  a  fourth  theory  concerning  the 
chronological  agreement  between  the  prophecy  of  Daniel 
and  its  fulfilment.  According  to  this  view,  the  term  from 
which  the  seventy  weeks  must  be  computed  is  the  same  as 
in  the  second  of  the  foregoing  theories,  i.e.,  the  year  455 
B.C.,  or  the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes'  reign.  The  term 
to  which  the  G9  weeks  reach  is  the  year  782  u.c,  or  the 
fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius  Cassar.  But  though  Christ's 
baptism  occurred  in  782  u.c,  he  was  born  in  747  u.c,  so 
that  at  the  time  of  his  baptism  he  was  34  years  and  2  mouths, 
or  about  30  years  old. 

It  is  clear  that  this  explanation  involves  three  supposi- 
tions: 1.  Xerxes  reigned  only  about  ten  or  eleven  years. 
This  has  been  shown  to  be  probable  under  the  second  ex- 
planation. 2.  Christ  was  born  several  years  before  the 
beginning  of  our  common  Christian  era.  This  is  suffi- 
ciently established  under  the  preceding  exj^lanations.  3.  The 
fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius  C^sar,  the  year  of  Jesus'  bap- 
tism, falls  in  782  u.c  This  third  supposition  rests  on  the 
fact  that  all  the  Latin  and  the  Syrian  coins  reckon  the 
years  of  Tiberius  from  his  accession  to  the  imperial  throne, 
i.e.,  from  767  u.c  It  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  in  78G, 
the  year  of  Christ's  death,  the  parasceve  of  the  Pasch, 
or  Nisau  14,  falls  on  a  Friday;  again,  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria (Migne  viii.  885),  Julius  Africanus,  Cyprian,  Philas- 
trius,  Gaudentius,  and  Prosper  hold  that  Jesus  taught  only 
one  year  and  died  in  the  year  15  of  Tiberius.  Tertullian 
is  of  opinion  that  Jesus  Avas  baptized  in  the  12th,  and  died 
in  the  15th,  year  of  Tiberius  Cassar,  while  Irena?us,  who  is 


322  BIRTH  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 

iilniost  iiii  Apostolic  Father,  has  it  that  Jesus  died  about 
the  ai^c  of  lifty. 

But  these  hitter  patristic  opinions  only  show  that  there 
is  no  perfect  agreement  among  the  Fathers  concerning  the 
years  of  the  public  life  and  death  of  our  Redeemer,  wliile 
they  cannot  lessen  the  value  of  other  arguments  which  we 
nuiy  be  able  to  find  concerning  them.  Now,  iSt.  Luke's 
statement  that  Jesus  was  about  thirty  years  old  when  lie 
began  his  public  life  can  hardly  be  reconciled  with  the 
view  that  he  was  342  years  old  at  the  time  of  his  baptism. 
Again,  the  traditional  clironology  of  St.  Peter's  jjontificate 
and  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  supposes  tiuit  Jesus 
must  have  died  in  the  year  782  u.c. 

2.  The  second  inference  derivable  from  Daniel's  proj)]u!cy 
is  that  by  the  Messias  remission  of  sin  and  i)erfoct  justice 
will  be  obtained.  The  Messianic  time  is  a  period  in  which 
"transgression  may  be  finished,  and  sin  may  have  an  end, 
and  iniquity  may  be  abolished,  and  everlasting  justice  may 
be  brought." 

3.  In  the  person  and  mission  of  the  Messias  all  the  })roph- 
ecies  of  the  Old  Testament  will  find  tlieir  fulfilment. 
The  Messias  himself  will  die  a  violent  death.  For  vision 
and  prophecy  shall  ])C  fulfilled,  and  at  the  ap})ointed  time 
the  Christ  shall  be  slain. 

4.  The  ruin  of  the  city  and  the  temple  shall  follow  the 
Messias'  violent  death  as  a  natural  consequence.  "  And  a 
people  with  their  leader  that  shall  come  shall  destroy  the 
city  and  the  sanctuary,  and  the  end  thereof  shall  be  waste 
and  after  the  end  of  the  war  the  appointed  desolation.  .  .  . 
And  the  desolation  shall  continue  even  to  the  consumma- 
tion and  to  the  end.'' 

5.  The  Messias  will  al)olish  the  Old  Testament  worship 
and  sacrifices.  "  And  in  the  half  of  the  week  the  victim 
and  tlie  sacrifice  shall  fail,  and  there  shall  l)e  in  the  temple 
the  abomination  of  desolation." 

G.  The  Messias  will  institute  a  new  covenant,  which  will 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSTAS'  BIETH.  B23 

take  the  place  of  the  former  divine  covenant.  "And  he 
shall  confirm  the  covenant  with  many,  in  one  week." 

T.  Jerusalem,  the  holy  city  of  God,  shall  he  restored  in 
so  far  as  it  is  a  type  of  the  restoration  of  God's  kingdom 
upon  earth.  "  The  street  shall  be  built  again,  and  the  walls 
in  troublesome  times." 

8.  If  it  be,  finally,  asked  what  special  consolation  the 
Jews  could  derive  from  Daniel's  prediction,  they  found  in 
it  the  assurance  of  a  future  restoration  of  their  temporal 
and  spiritual  prosperity.  All  this  was,  however,  foretold  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  could  foresee  the  fiiud  ruin  of 
their  temporal  well-being  in  the  interest  of  the  kingdom  of 
God,  into  which  many  were  to  enter  during  the  course  of 
the  last  or  the  seventieth  week. 

Section  III.    The  Coming  to  the  Temple. 

Agg.  ii.  1-10. 

Introduction. 

1.  The  Historical  Connection  of  the  Prophecy  with 
ITS  Context. — The  circumstances  under  which  the  present 
prophecy  is  written  are  entirely  the  same  as  those  under 
which  Zacharias  wrote  his  celebrated  oracles  concerning  the 
future  deliverer.  Sixteen  years  had  elapsed  since  the  re- 
turn of  the  Jewish  exiles  from  Babylon,  and  uo  successful 
effort  had  been  made  to  rebuild  the  sanctuary.  In  the 
second  year  of  Darius  (b.c.  520)  the  prophets  Aggeus  and 
Zacharias  (I.  Esdr.  iv.  34;  v.  1,  2)  reproached  the  people 
for  their  neglect,  and  exhorted  them  to  apply  themselves 
in  earnest  to  the  task,  with  the  result  that  four  years  after- 
wards the  work  was  completed. 

2.  Division  of  the  Prophecy. — The  prophecy  of  Aggeus 
consists  of  four  sections,  arranged  chronologically:   a.  In 
the  second  year  of  Darius,  the  first  day  of  the  sixth  month 
Aggeus   gave  out  the  foregoing   public  appeal  no   longer 
to  postpone  the  restoration  of  the  temple.     On  the  twenty- 


324  lUliTlI  OF  TllK  MKSSIAS. 

fourth  (luy  of  the  same  mouth  the  people,  headed  by  Zoro- 
babel  ami  the  high-priest  Jesus,  begau  the  work.  This 
is  told  iu  Agg.  i.  l-ii.  1.  b.  Ou  the  tvveuty-first  day  of 
the  seventh  mouth  the  prophet  eucourages  those  who  might 
have  seen  the  temple  of  Solomon,  and  might  regard  the 
structure  now  rising  from  the  grouiul  as  far  inferior  to  it 
(Agg.  ii.  2-10).  c.  Ou  the  twenty-fourth  day  of  the  ninth 
month  the  prophet  teaches  the  people  that  so  long  as  the 
temple  continues  unbuilt  they  are  as  men  who  are  un- 
clean, their,  offerings  are  uiuicceptable,  and  hence  their 
unfruitful  seasons  (Agg.  ii.  11-20).  d.  On  the  same  day 
Aggeus  eucourages  Zorobabel  as  the  civil  head  of  the  re- 
stored community  with  the  assurance  that  in  the  approach- 
ing overthrow  of  the  Gentile  thrones  and  kingdoms  he  will 
receive  s])ecial  signs  of  divine  favor  (Agg.  ii.  21-2-4), 

3.  Explanations  of  the  Prophecy.— r^  The  prophecy 
is  concerned  with  the  political  commotions  of  the  Persian 
and  Greek  empires,  and  with  the  honor  Avhich  the  temple 
shall  receive  through  the  gifts  of  the  Gentiles  (cf.  II.  Mach. 
iii.  2,  3;  Ps.  Ix.xi.  (Ixxii.)  10).  The  reasons  for  this  inter- 
pretation are  taken  from  the  text  and  the  context  of  the 
])rophecy.  a.  The  text  of  verse  7  supplies  the  desired 
argument:  "  Yet  one  little  while  (and  I  will  move  the 
heaven  and  the  earth,  and  the  sea  and  the  dry  land) "  is 
the  time  which  God  assigns  for  the  fulfilment  of  his  pre- 
diction. But  if  the  latter  were  Messianic,  it  would  have 
been  fulfilled  500  years,  and  more,  after  the  prediction, 
which  is  surely  not  a  mere  "little  while."  /i.  Again,  in 
the  context  of  the  prophecy  (vv.  22,  23)  God  almost  re- 
peats the  promise  of  vv.  7,  8,  9 :  "I  will  move  both  heaven 
and  earth  .  .  ."  Now,  vv.  32,  23  refer  to  the  immediate 
future,  and  not  to  the  far-oif  Messianic  times.  Therefore, 
the  prediction  of  vv.  7,  8,  9  too  must  refer  to  the  immedi- 
ate future.  The  theological  value  of  this  oi)inion  will  be 
seen  in  what  follows. 

b.  A  secoiul  interpretation  does  not  deny  tliat  the  proph- 
ecy has  reference  to  the  Messias  and  liis  times;  but  it  is 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH.  325 

Messianic  only  in  so  far  as  all  future  times  will  render  the 
temple  glorious  by  the  gifts  and  the  worship  that  the 
Gentiles  will  offer  when  humbled  by  the  extraordinary 
reverses  of  war  (Reinke,  Hengstenberg).  (v.  The  first 
reason  assigned  for  this  exjilanation  is  the  fact  that  the 
movements  of  the  heaven  and  the  earth  and  of  the  nations 
are  not  limited  to  any  particular  time  in  the  pi'ophecy. 
Hence  they  apply  to  all  times.  Still,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
does  not  appear  probable  that  such  a  general  promise  would 
have  been  set  forth  with  such  solemnity,  fi.  The  second 
reason  advanced  by  the  above  authors  rests  on  the  fact 
that  the  temple  is  a  type  of  the  worship  paid  to  the  true 
God  of  Israel;  this  may  be  gathered  from  Is.  ii,  2  f.,  and 
Ix.  1  f.  The  temple  is,  therefore,  represented  as  glorified 
by  the  conversion  of  the  new  nations  to  the  worsiiip  of 
Jehovah,  y.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  not  oidy  the 
second  temple  that  was  such  a  type:  the  first  temple  had 
the  same  spiritual  meaning.  The  mere  conversion  of  the 
Gentiles  would  therefore  not  render  "  the  glory  of  this  last 
house  more  than  of  the  first."  d.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that 
after  the  time  of  Aggeus  many  more  Gentiles  adhered  to 
Jehovah  than  before  his  time,  and  that  therefore  the  second 
temple  would  be  more  glorious  than  the  first.  For  such 
a  glory  applied,  at  most,  to  the  temple  taken  in  its  sjiiritual 
meaning,  not  to  the  material  temple,  while  the  prophecy 
of  Aggeus  speaks  of  the  material  rather  than  the  spiritual 
temple. 

c.  Ribera  is  of  opinion  that  the  promise,  "  Great  shall  be 
the  glory  of  this  last  house  more  than  of  the  first,"  was 
verified  not  only  by  the  corporal  presence  of  the  Messias  in 
the  second  temple,  but  also  by  the  material  splendor  of 
Herod's  temple,  a.  This  opinion  rests  first  on  verse  9, 
where  God  says:  "The  silver  is  mine  and  the  gold  is  mine." 
Now  God  really  brought  the  silver  and  the  gold  into  the 
second  temple  by  means  of  Herod's  restoration.  When 
one  reads  Josephus'  (Antiq.  XV.  xi.  2-5)  description  of  the 
second  temple,  one  can  hardly  fail  to  recognize  in  it  the 


826  DIRTII  OF  THE  MKSSIAS. 

verineation  of  Aggeus'  })ro})hecy.  ft.  Still,  on  the  other 
hiuid,  it  is  more  cpminoiily  admitted  that  the  glory  of  Solo- 
mon's temple  exceeded  that  of  Herod's,  so  that  the  pre- 
diction was  not  fully  verified  through  the  magnificence  of 
the  latter. 

4.  The  Messianic  Nature  of  Aggeus'  Prophecy.—^/.  St. 
Paul,  in  his  epistle  to  tlie  Hebrews  (xii.  X'5,  '.Mi,  '.'I),  clearly 
applies  part  of  this  prophecy  to  the  Messianic  times.  Ex- 
horting his  readers  to  "refuse  him  not  that  speaketh,"  he 
reasons  in  this  manner:  " They  escai)ed  not  who  refused 
him  that  spoke  upon  the  earth,"  i.e.,  ou  Mount  Sinai,  when 
he  shook  the  whole  desert.  Much  less  shall  we  escape  if 
we  refuse  him  who  says:  "  Yet  once  more,  and  1  will  move 
not  only  the  earth,  but  heaven  also,"  which  he  did  in  the 
establishing  of  the  Christian  dispensation.  "  For  in  that 
he  saith :  Yet  once  more,  he  siguifietli  the  translation  of 
the  movable  things  as  made,"  i.e.,  he  shows  that  the  cove- 
nant made  during  the  first  shaking  of  the  earth  will  be 
abrogated ;  "  that  those  things  may  remain  which  are  im- 
movable, i.e.,  that  the  new  covenant,  made  when  the  earth 
and  heaven  were  moved,  may  be  everlasting.  If  it  be  ob- 
jected that  the  moving  of  heaven  and  earth  promised  in 
the  prophecy  was  to  take  jilace  after  "■  one  little  while,"  it 
must  be  remembered  that  500  years  are  a  very  little  while 
for  the  eternal  God.  h.  The  moving  of  heaven  and  earth, 
and  especially  of  "  all  mitions,"  is  in  Sacred  Scripture  the 
common  figure  of  the  Mcssias'  coming;  this  may  be  seen 
in  I.  Kings  ii.  10;  Joel  ii.  28-31  (this  latter  passage  is  ex- 
plained in  Actsii.  17-20);  Ps.  xcv.  (xcvi.)  9-11.  c.  The 
glory  which  the  projjhet  i)romises  to  the  newtemi)leap]iears 
to  be  identical  with  that  spoken  of  in  Is.  Ix.  1,  2;  now  the 
latter  is  evidently  the  glory  Jerusalem  will  receive  from 
the  Messias.  d.  The  promise  of  peace  too,  "and  in  this 
l)lace  I  will  give  thee  peace,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts,"  gives 
tlu'  i)rophecy  a  Messianic  bearing,  as  nuiy  be  inferred  by  a 
comparison  with  Mich.  v.  .'>;  Is.  ix.  G,  7;  liii.  f);  Ps.  Ixxi. 
(Ixxii.)   3,  7;  Luke  i.  79;  ii.    14;  Col.  i.  20,  etc.     c.  The 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  3msSIAS'  BIRTH.  327 

words,  "  I  will  move  all  nations,"  appear  to  have  reference 
to  the  divine  judgment  of  the  Gentiles  which  in  I.  Kings 
ii.  10  and  Dan,  vii.  1-i  is  connected  with  the  advent  of 
the  Messias.  /.  If  in  Agg.  ii.  23-24  the  promise,  "  In  that 
day  I  will  take  thee,  0  Zorobabel,  my  servant,  and  will  make 
thee  as  a  signet,  for  I  have  chosen  thee,"  refers  to  Zoro- 
babel and  connects  his  elevation  with  the  overthrow  of  the 
nations,  that  Jewish  king  is  in  reality  only  the  type  of  his 
great  offspring,  the  flower  of  the  root  of  Jesse. 

It  is  true  that  the  Jews  now  generally  nnderstand  this 
prophecy  as  applying  either  to  the  greater  glory  of  the  Ilero- 
dian  temple,  or  to  the  longer  duration  of  the  second  tem- 
ple,— according  to  some  anthorities  the  first  stood  410, 
the  second  420  years, — or  again  of  the  future  temple 
that  will  be  built  at  the  time  of  the  Messias.  But  to  this 
interpretation  they  have  been  driven  by  their  theological 
exigencies.  The  Jews  who  rejected  our  Lord  were  still 
convinced  that  the  prophecy  must  be  verified  during  the 
time  of  the  second  temple.  Josephus  (B.  J.  VI.  v.  4)  and 
Tacitus  (Hist.  v.  13)  endeavor  to  wrest  the  prediction  to 
Vespasian;  R.  Akiba,  who  was  accounted  the  first  oracle  of 
his  time,  the  first  and  greatest  guardian  of  the  tradition 
and  the  old  law,  of  whom  they  said  that  God  revealed  to 
him  things  unknown  to  Moses,  was  induced  by  Aggeus' 
prophecy  to  acknowledge  the  impostor  Bar-cochba,  to  his 
own  and  his  nation's  destruction.  Following  the  tradi- 
tional meaning  of  the  great  prophecy,  tlie  great  rabbi  para- 
phrased the  words,  "  Yet  a  little,  a  little  of  the  kingdom, 
will  I  give  to  Israel  upon  the  destruction  of  the  first  house, 
and  after  the  kingdom,  lo!  I  will  shake  heaven,  and  after 
that  will  come  the  Messias  "  (Pusey,  ''  Minor  Prophets,"  ii. 
pp.  311  1).  Then,  again,  the  Midrash  on  Deuteronomy  (ii. 
31 ;  sect.  1)  has  the  following  words :  "  Behold,  I  have  begun. 
This  refers,  said  Rabbi  Azarya,  to  the  help  which  is  once  to 
come.  How  so  ?  As  the  prophet  said  to  Israel:  Yet  once, 
it  is  a  little  while,  and  I  will  shake  the  heavens  .  .  ." 

Calmet,  Bade,  and  Catholic  tlieologians  generally  are, 


328  BTRTU  OF  THE  MESS  I  AS. 

therefore,  riclit  in  believing  tluit  Aggeus'  iirediction  lias 
been  I'nlly  verilied  in  tlie  time  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Agg.  II.  1-10. 

In  the  four  and  twentieth  day  of  the  month,  in  the  sixth 
month,  in  tlic  second  year  of  Darius  tlie  king  they  began.  And 
in  tlie  seventh  montli,  tlic  one  and  twentieth  day  of  the  month, 
the  word  of  the  Lord  came  by  the  hand  of  Aggeus  the  propliet, 
saying  :  "  Speak  to  Zorobabel,  tlic  son  of  Salathiel,  tlie  governor 
of  Jnda,  and  to  Jesus,  the  son  of  Josedec,  the  high-priest,  and  to 
the  rest  of  the  people,  saying  :  '  Who  is  left  among  you  that  saw 
this  house  in  its  first  glory  ?  and  how  do  you  see  it  now  ?  is  it  not 
in  comparison  to  that  as  nothing  in  your  eyes  ?  Yet  now  take 
coiirj'.ge,  ()  Zorobabel,'  saith  the  Lord,  '  and  take  courage,  O  Jesus, 
the  son  of  Josedec,  the  high-iiriest,  and  take  courage,  all  ye  people 
of  the  land,'  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts,  'and  i)erform  (for  1  am  witJi 
you,'  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts)  'the  word  that  I  covenanted  with 
you,  when  you  came  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  my  spirit  shall 
lie  in  the  midst  of  you;  fear  not.'  For  thus  saith  the  Ijord  of 
iiosts  :  ' '  Yet  one  little  while,  and  I  will  move  the  heaven,  and  the 
earth,  and  the  sea,  and  the  dry  land,  and  I  v.ill  move  all  nations, 
and  the  ''desired  of  all  nations  shall  come,  and  I  will  fill  this 

'  One  little  while,  bi  order  to  render  the  full  meaning  of  the 
Ilchrcw  text  we  iinist  translate:  "Yet  once,  it  is  a  little  while."  The 
'•  once  "  loolvs  forward  and  conveys  that  (iod  will  again  shake  the 
world,  l)iit  onoeonly;  the  "yet  "  looks  hack  to  the  first  great  sliaking 
of  the  moral  world,  when  (iod's  revelation  to  Moses  and  his  chosen 
p(H)l>le  broke  upon  the  pagan  world.  The  "  little  while"  refers  to 
tiie  .T17  years  that  were  to  elapse  between  the  prophecy  and  tlie  birth 
of  .lesns  Christ.  It  really  is  a  little  while  as  conijiared  with  (lod's 
eternity,  which  tlie  pro]dict  has  in  view,  as  compared  with  the  several 
thousand  years  that  had  already  elapsed  after  the  first  ])roinise  of  tlie 
Messias,  and  finally  as  compared  with  the  duration  of  the  t'hristian 
flispeiisation  which  was  to  begin  at  the  end  of  tlie  517  years.  Hence 
it  follows:  1.  That  the  prophet  does  not  wholly  insist  on  the  short- 
ness of  time  befrjre  the  Messias  should  arrive  ;  2.  that  in  reality  two 
things  are  predicted  by  the  ]>hrase  :  <i.  the;  shortness  of  time  to  tlie 
(•oming  of  the  Messias;  />.  the  stal)ilily  of  tli(^  new  covenant,  which  is 
to  be  cDncliided  after  that  short  jieriod  ;  15.  the  I,X.\.  version  and  the 
Syriac,  rendering  the  phras*'  "  or.cc  more,"  give  only  one  half  of  the 
real  niejining.  St.  i'aul  (lleb.  xii.  i(),  "JT)  inii)lies  both  meanings;  the 
Clialdei-  ])iii!iplira^e.  tod,  clenrlv  indicates  both  significations. 

'  The  desired  of  all  nations  shall  come  'I'here  are  two  ])rincii>al 
dillicultii's  connecied  with  these  woitls  :    1.  the  verb  "shall  conu'"  is 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MESSIAS'  BIRTH.  329 

house  with  glory,'  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts.     '  The  silver  is  mine, 

in  the   phiral   number  in  the  Hebrew  text;    2.  the  "desire  of  all 
nations  "  may  be  taken  either  subjectively  or  objectively. 

1.  Of  the  "first  point  various  explanations  have  been  given  :  a.  The 
subject  of  the  clause  is  indefinite,  so  that  we  must  render:  "they 
shall  come  with  the  desire  of  the  nations,"  i.e.,  "  with  the  most 
precious  things."  But  such  a  rare  and  uncommon  ellipsis  cannot  be 
admitted  as  long  as  we  are  able  to  find  another  interpretation. 
h.  Bade,  with  a  few  others,  explains  the  plural  number  as  a  plural 
of  majesty,  because,  according  to  him,  the  subject  is  the  Messias. 
But  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  where  the  plural  of  majesty  occurs 
in  the  verb  it  is  also  found  in  the  subject  (cf.  (len.  xx.  18  ;  xxxv.  7  ; 
II.  Kings  vii.  28,  etc.)  ;  Is.  xlv.  8  is  no  exception  to  this  rule,  since 
in  that  passage  the  plural  verb  refers  to  a  subject  taken  in  a  collec- 
tive sense,  c.  Others  again  have  explained  the  plural  verb  as  refer- 
ring back  to  the  plural  genitive  in  the  phrase  "  tbe  desire  of  all 
nations."  Though  such  a  construction  is  found  in  Hebrew,  still  it 
supposes  that  the  thought  expressed  by  the  possessive  is  the  princi- 
pal idea  of  the  whole  phrase.  Now,  this  is  not  the  case  in  the  present 
pa.ssage.  d.  It  is  therefore  preferable  to  regard  the  subject  "  the  de- 
sire of  all  naticms  "  as  an  abstract  term,  implying  all  the  various  ))en- 
efits  that  are  contained  in  the  Messianic  blessings.  For  Ave  shall  see 
in  the  next  paragraph  that  the  clause  has  a  Messianic  meaning. 

2.  The  second  hermeneutic  difficulty  connected  with  our  passage 
regards  the  precise  meaning  of  its  subject,  "the  desire  of  all  nations." 
a.  The  clause  has  a  subjective  meaning,  i.e.,  it  refers  to  that  people 
among  all  the  nations  which  is  most  desired.  It  must  therefore  be 
rendered  "the  most  desirable  of  all  nations  "  (Hitzig.Umbreit,  Ewald 
formerly,  Scholz.  Hengst.).  Similar  constructions  occur  in  Os,  xiii. 
lo  (vessels  of  desire),  Ps.  cv.  (cvi.)  24  (land  of  desire) ;  Ezech.  xsvi. 
12  (houses  of  thy  desire)  ;  Jer.  xii.  10  (my  portion  of  desire),  etc.  But 
it  should  be  noted  that  in  all  these  instances  the  word  meaning  "de- 
sire" follows  the  other  noun  of  the  phrase.  In  the  present  passage, 
on  the  contrary,  the  word  "desire"  precedes  its  companion  noun. 
/;.  There  are  two  passages  in  the  Old  Testament  besides  the  one  we 
are  now  discussing  in  which  the  Hebrew  noun  meaning  "desire" 
precedes  its  noun.  In  I.  Kings  ix.  20  we  read  "  the  whole  longing  of 
Israel;"'  in  Dan.  xi.  87  the  prophet  sjjeaks  about  "the  desire  of 
women."  Now  in  both  these  cases  the  clause  in  interjireted  objec- 
tively, i.e.,  the  word  "  desire  "  stands  for  that  which  is  desired.  15ut 
there  now  rises  the  further  question  :  What  did  the  prophet  mean  by 
"  that  which  all  the  nations  desire  "  ? 

a.  All  the  Messianic  blessings  taken  collectively  are  indicated  by 
the  phrase,  because  all  nations  desired  these  blessings  (cf.  Kom.  viii. 
19-22  ;  Is.  ii.  2  f.;  xi.  10  ;  Ix.  9;  (len.  xlix.  10)  ;  the  same  blessings 
were  given  in  the  temple,  because  it  was  there  that  Jesus  ]ireached 
the  principal  truths  of  the  Christian  dispensation  (cf.  Jo.  ii.  19  ;  vii. 
14  f. ;  viii.  2  f. ;  x.  28  f.);  the  temple  therefore  is  truly  represented 
as  partaking  of  the  glory  of  the  Messianic  blessing,  and  the  context 
(the  predicate  of  the  jdirase  is  a  ])lural  verb)  ai)|)ears  to  require  such 
a  collective  meaning  of  "  the  desire  of  all  nations." 


:^iiO  BIItTII  OF  THE  atessias. 

and  llio  gold  is  niiiic/  saith  tlio  Lord  of  hosts.  '  Groat  shall  be 
tlio  glory  of  this  last  house  more  than  of  the  first,'  saith  the  Lord 
of  hosts  ;  'and  in  this  place  I  will  give  peace,'  saith  the  I^jrd  of 
hosts." 

Corollary. 

1.  History  shows  ns  that  Cod  moved  all  the  nations 
before  the  coining  of  Jesus  (Hirist.  The  Persian  kingdom 
fell  before  Alexander;  Alexander's  world-em])ire  was  di- 
vided among  his  four  successors,  two  of  whom  continued 
and  two  fell  before  the  Romans;  then  followed  the  RomaTi 
civil  wars,  until  under  Augustus  the  temple  of  Janus  could 
bo  shut,  and  universal  peace  reigned  upon  the  earth. 

The  heavens  too  were  moved  about  the  period  of  re- 
demption by  the  star  which  led  the  wise  men  to  Bethlehem, 
by  the  angels  who  announced  the  newly-horn  Saviour  to 

b.  Most  Catholic;  intcrpretors  and  several  Protestant  writers  (Piisey, 
e.g.)  understand  by  the  "  desire  of  all  nations"  the  ])ers()n  of  the  Mes- 
sias.  (t.  Tlie  ))lural  verhdoes  not  iippear  to  eontradict  this  meaning, 
liecause  a  jierson  may  well  Ix;  rejirest^nted  as  the  object  of  our  desires; 
thus  we  read  in  (.'icero  (Fain.  xiv.  2)  a  husband's  farewell  to  his 
wife:  "  Farewell,  my  longings,  farewell."  fJ.  Besides,  the  person  of 
Christ  was  more  cdosely  eonnected  with  the  temjjle  than  the  preach- 
ing of  his  doctrine  was,  and  the  words  "I  will  fill  this  house  with 
f^lory  "  seem  to  reijitire  ratlu^r  a  personal  presence  than  a  mere  doc 
trinal  influence,  y.  The  ]>arallel  prophecy  (Mai.  iii  1)  too  refers  to 
the  ])i'rs()n  of  the  Messias,  so  that  we  must  seek  a  similar  reference  in 
the  present  prophecy,  f).  Nor  can  it  be  said  ihat  the  Mt^ssias  did 
not  enter  the  second  temple,  but  rather  that  of  Zorobabel.  First, 
this  exception  would  be  (Mpially  valid  against  the  jirevious  interpreta- 
tion. Then,  a  passage  of  Jo.sephus  (Antiq.  XV.  xi.  1)  shows  that  llernd 
did  not  destroy  Zorobabel's  temple  in  order  to  erect  a  new  edifice, 
but  that  he  n^built  jiart  after  i)art,  leaving  the  new  edifice  morally 
identical  with  tlit;  preceding  one.  Thirdly,  the  Jews  well  understond 
this,  since  they  never  speak  of  a  third  temple,  but  only  of  a  first  and  a 
second  one.  Besides  all  this,  it  will  be  remembered  that  in  verse  4 
the  prophet  says.  "  Who  is  left  among  you  that  saw  this  hou.se  in  its 
first  glory?"  There  is  question  of  "this  house"  and  its  "first 
glory."  The  "  glory  "  evidently  refers  to  that  of  Solomon's  temjde; 
the  word  "this  house"  must  therefore  be  taken  not  literally  of  the 
seco!id  temi)le  then  building,  i)ut  rather  of  the  temi)le  as  the  rei)re- 
sentative  of  all  .lewi.sh  temples,  jiast  or  future.  The  pro])het  con- 
tinues, contrasting^  not  temple  with  temi)]e,  but  the  "  first  f,^lory  " 
with  the  ^I'^y  to  come  (cf.  Corluy,  Spicil.  i.  522;  Pusey,  ••. Minor 
Proph.,"  in  h.  !.). 


THE  TIME  OF  THE  MES8IAS'  BIRTn.  331 

the  shepherds,  by  the  preternatural  darkness  that  clouded 
the  skies  during  the  hours  of  Christ's  passion,  by  Jesus' 
ascension  into  the  highest  heavens,  by  the  descent  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  with  a  sound  from  heaven  as  if  of  a  mighty 
wind  coming,  and  above  all  by  the  commotion  in  the  very 
bosom  of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity,  if  we  may  speak  in  this 
manner  without  irreverence — a  commotion  which  resulted 
from  the  Second  Person's  putting  on  the  weak  mortal  flesh 
of  man  in  the  womb  of  the  ever  Blessed  Virgin  Mary. 

God  had  moved  the  sea  when  the  Israelites  passed 
through  the  Red  Sea,  and  later  on  through  the  Jordan, 
when  there  was  dry  ground  in  the  sea,  a  wall  in  the  waves, 
a  path  in  the  waters;  and  God  moved  the  waters  again 
when  the  Lord  of  heaven  not  only  sailed  over  the  surface 
of  the  sea,  but  walked  thereon  without  peril,  commanded 
the  angry  fury  of  the  storm,  and  bade  the  deep  be  still. 

In  the  Old  Testament  God  moved  the  dry  land  when 
the  wilderness  supplied  a  daily  harvest  of  heavenly  food, 
when  the  rock  gushed  forth  fountains  of  water.  But  the 
dry  land  was  moved  again  when  the  rocks  were  split,  when 
the  graves  were  opened  at  the  death  of  Christ,  when  the 
unfruitful  people  of  the  Gentiles  ripened  to  a  harvest  of 
faith  and  devotion. 

2.  The  desired  of  all  nations  came  and  filled  the  temple 
with  glory  when  he  was  presented  in  the  temple  by  his 
parents,  and  was  proclaimed  by  Simeon  to  be  God's  own 
salvation,  "  prepared  before  the  face  of  all  the  peoples  as  a 
light  to  the  revelation  of  the  Gentiles,  aiul  as  the  glory  of 
the  people  Israel  "  (Luke  ii.  30-32).  Again  did  the  desired 
of  all  nations  fill  the  temple  with  glory  when  he  i:)urged 
it  from  all  defilement,  driving  out  all  the  buyers  and  sellers, 
and  restoring  to  the  place  its  pro])er  sanctity.  Well  then 
might  the  prophet  say:  "  The  gold  is  mine,  and  the  silver  is 
mine,"  showing  that  these  outward  riches  appear  des- 
picable wlien  compared  with  tlie  presence  of  Jesus  Christ. 

3.  Peace  too  did  God  give  in  Jerusalem  through  his 
Christ  when  tlie  a-ngvls  proclaimed  peace  to    men  at  the 


332  BIRTH  OF  THE  ME8STAS. 

Tiedeenier's  birth,  wlieii  Jesus  left  tliat  peace  to  his  apostles 
before  his  suffering,  which,  dying  on  the  cross,  he  merited 
for  all  men,  and  which  the  apostles  have  preached  to  all 
nations  (Luke  ii.  14;  Jo.  xiv.  27;  xx.  19,  21;  Rom.  v.  1; 
Acts  X.  3G;  Eph.  ii.  14-18). 


THE   VIRGIN  MOTHER.  333 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE  VIRGIN  MOTHER.     Is.  vii.  1-17. 

Introduction. 

1.  History  and  Occasion  of  the  Prophecy.— We  learn 
from  IV.  Kings  xvi.  1-4  tlitit  Acliaz  despised  tlie  traditions 
of  his  fathers,  and  openly  professed  idolatry.  Hence  he 
was  given  over  by  God  into  the  hands  of  the  Syrian  king, 
who  carried  off  immense  booty  to  his  royal  capital,  Damas- 
cus. But  the  king  of  Israel  too  afflicted  the  kingdom  of 
Juda  with  exceeding  bitter  afflictions  (II.  Par.  xxviii.  5) — 
so  much  so  that  he  slew  of  Jiida  a  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand  on  a  single  day.  But  this  war,  which  was  a 
real  chastisement  of  Achaz  on  the  part  of  God,  had  also  its 
special  natural  causes. 

It  appears  that  an  alliance  had  been  concluded  between 
Phacee,  king  of  Israel,  and  Rasin,  king  of  Damascus,  for  the 
purpose  of  opposing  a  barrier  to  the  Assyrian  aggressions. 
Cherishing  Assyrian  proclivities  as  Achaz  did,  he  did  not 
join  the  coalition;  the  allies  therefore  invaded  his  terri- 
tories, intending  to  dethrone  Achaz  and  substitute  for  him 
a  more  subservient  ruler,  a  certain  son  of  Tabeel.  The  in- 
vasion caused  great  alarm  in  Jerusalem,  tliough  Phacee 
alone  appears  at  first  to  have  gone  against  tlie  capital, 
while  Rasin  was  occupied  in  reconquering  the  maritime 
city,  Elath.  After  this  victory  he  must  have  joined  his  ally 
in  his  assault  on  Jerusalem,  Achaz  meditated  casting 
himself  on  Assyria  for  help — a  policy  of  which  the  prophet 
Isaias  strongly  disapproved.  He  was  divinel}'^  instructed 
to  assure  Achaz  tha-t  l:is  fears  were  groundless,  and  that 


384  BIliTlI  OF  THE  MESSIA8. 

the  two  kingdoms  were  doomed  to  destniction.  To  over- 
come the  king's  distrust,  the  prophet  offers  to  give  him  a 
sign;  but  through  tlie  king's  difiidenee  tlie  sign  becomes  an 
omen  of  ruin  for  Judu:  tlie  land  will  indeed  be  saved  from 
the  two  kings  according  to  God's  promise,  but  the  land  of 
Juda  will  become  the  battle-ground  in  the  conflict  between 
the  Egyptian  and  the  Assyrian  armies. 

Achaz,  however,  sent  his  messengers  to  the  Assyrian  king 
Theglathphalasar,  asking  for  his  help  in  present  distress 
(II.  Par.  xxviii.  IG;  IV.  Kings  xvi.  7).  The  Assyrian 
monarch  complied  with  Achaz'  request  and  invaded 
Damascus;  the  allied  kings  had  therefore  to  abandon  their 
warlike  designs  on  Juda  and  provide  for  their  own  safety 
(IV.  Kings  xvi.  5,  G).  Theglathphalasar  transported  the 
inhabitants  of  Damascus  to  Cyrcne,  and  killed  its  king, 
Kasin  (IV.  Kings  xvi.  9).  Then  he  invaded  also  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  and  transported  a  number  of  its  inhabitants 
into  Assyria  (IV.  Kings  xv.  29).  Phacee,  the  Israelite 
king,  was  slain  by  conspirators  in  the  seventeenth  year  of 
his  reign,  and  in  the  third  year  of  Achaz'  rule,  i.e.,  in  the 
same  year  in  which  the  two  allied  kings  had  invaded  the 
kingdom  of  Juda  (IV.  Kings  xv.  30).  But  after  subduing 
the  Syrian  and  the  Samaritan  kings,  the  Assyrian  conqueror 
invaded  also  the  kingdom  of  Juda  and  devastated  it  with- 
out resistance,  so  that  only  few  inhabitants  with  their  herds 
and  cattle  remained  (II.  Par.  xxviii.  20;  cf.  Is.  viii.  7,8). 

2.  Erroneous  Explanations  of  the  Prophecy.  —  n. 
Several  of  tlio  ancient  Jewish  Mriters  maintain  that  the 
Emmanuel  promised  to  be  l)orn  of  the  virgin  is  Achaz' 
S071  and  successor,  Ezechias.  But  it  must  be  remembered 
that  Ezechias  was  about  eight  or  nine  years  old  at  the  time 
of  the  prophecy,  for  he  was  twenty-five  years  old  when  he 
began  to  reign,  i.e.,  about  15  or  IG  years  after  the  prophecy 
was  given  (IV.  Kings  xviii.  2). 

h.  Several  rationalistic  authors  and  the  Catholic  writer 
Isenbiehl  regard  Knnnanucl  as  the  son  of  a  virgin  who  will 
lose  her  virginity  in   the  (•(!nc('i>ti(»ii  and  liii'th  of  the  boy. 


THE  VIRGIN  MOTHER.  335 

The  name  Emmanuel  is  nothing  but  a  symbol,  just  as  the 
names  Schear  -  lashub  and  Malier  -  Shalal  -  Chash  -  liaz  are 
symbolic.  Tlie  sign  consists  in  Istiias'  predicting  that  the 
virgin  will  conceive  in  her  first  intercourse,  and  that  slie 
will  bring  forth  a  boy.  The  foreknowledge  of  both  of 
these  circumstances  requires  a  special  divine  assistance,  and 
is  therefore  rightly  represented  as  a  sign.  This  opinion 
will  be  refuted  in  the  course  of  our  treatment  of  the 
propliecy, 

c.  Delitzsch  has  a  rather  curious  explanation  of  the 
prophecy.  According  to  him  God  had  revealed  two  future 
facts  to  Isaias— the  virginal  conception  of  the  Messias  and 
the  in\niediate  liberation  of  Juda  from  its  oppressors. 
The  time  of  tlie  Messias'  coming  had,  however,  not  been 
made  known  to  the  pro])het.  Isaias,  therefore,  trying  to 
combine  the  two  prophecies,  was  of  the  opinion  that  the 
birth  of  the  Messias  would  jn'ecede  the  liberation  of  the 
theocratic  kingdom.  The  result  is  that  the  jjrophecy 
represents  the  Messias  as  being  about  to  be  born,  and  de- 
scribes the  land  of  Juda  as  about  to  be  freed  before  the 
Messias  will  have  attained  the  use  of  reason,  i.e.,  before  he 
will  have  reached  the  years  of  discretion.  It  may  be  of 
interest  to  know  that  Ivosenniiiller  too  gives  a  similar  ex- 
planation. 

If  it  be  observed  that  according  to  this  view  there  would 
be  an  error  in  the  prophecy,  botli  authors  deny  such  an 
inference  on  the  plea  that  the  time  of  the  Messias'  birth 
was  not  revealed  to  the  prophet,  but  that  the  erroneous 
inference  must  be  ascribed  to  his  own  private  judgment. 
But  if  this  be  admitted  as  a  true  solution  of  the  difficulty, 
it  follows  that  in  any  prophecy  we  can  hardly  know  what 
has  been  revealed  by  God  to  the  prophet  and  what  must  be 
ascribed  to  his  own  private  view  on  tlie  sul^ject. 

3.  Messianic  Nature  of  the  Prophecy. — a.  The  Mes- 
sianic character  of  the  present  prophecy  appears  first  of  all 
from  the  testimony  of  St.  Matthew,  i.  18-25 :  " .  .  .  Now 
all  this  was  done  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  the  Lord 


336  miiTH  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

s[)uke  by  tlio  })r()])ht!t,  suyiiig  :  Behold  a  virgin  sluill 
be  with  dhikl  ..."  There  are  two  excei:)tions  to  tliis 
argnnieiit:  1.  It  is  suid  that  tlie  first  two  ch:4)tcrs  of  St. 
]\Iiiitliew's  gospel  ure  spurious.  But  this  can  hardly  be 
asserted  without  the  greatest  temerity,  not  to  say  witliout 
heresy.  For  the  Tridentiue  and  the  Vatican  councils 
(Trid.  sess.  iv.,  decret.  de  can.  Script.;  Vatic,  sess.  iii.  c.  2) 
oi)enly  declare  that  the  whole  liible,  with  all  its  parts,  as 
it  is  contained  in  the  old  Vulgate  edition,  is  sacred,  canoni- 
cal, and  divinely  inspired  (Vat.);  on  the  other  hand,  there 
is  in  our  days  no  critic  worthy  of  the  name  who  rejects 
the  first  two  cha])ters  of  St.  Matthew's  gospel  without 
rejecting  all  the  rest. 

2.  'J'he  second  exception  against  our  inference  that 
Isaias'  prophecy  is  Messianic  because  St.  Matthew  viewed 
it  as  su(;h  may  be  found  in  Isenbiohl  (Nener  Versuch  Tiber 
die  Weissagung  vom  Kniniannel,  1778).  The  author  as- 
sures us  that  the  evangelist's  words,  "that  it  might  be 
fulfilled,"  may  indicate  a  mere  accommodation  of  the  proph- 
ecy to  Christ's  conception.  In  support  of  this  he  ap- 
peals to  St.  Jerome's  saying  (Ep.  103  ad  Paulin.,  c.  7), 
that  Socrates'  words  were  "fulfilled"  in  him:  "I  only 
know  that  I  do  not  know."  Again,  Isenbiehl  endeavors  to 
prove  that  St.  Matthew  repeatedly  uses  the  formula  "  that 
it  might  be  fulfilled"  where  he  applies  an  Old  Testament 
])rophecy  to  our  Lord  by  mere  accommodation.  Thus  Matt, 
ii.  15  applies  to  Christ  what  Os.  xi.  1  applies  to  the  people 
of  Israel;  Matt.  ii.  18  applies  to  the  infants  slain  at  Beth- 
lehem what  Jer.  xxxi.  15  applies  to  the  lamentations  over 
I  he  national  misfortune  in  the  Babylonian  reverses;  Matt, 
ii.  23  applies  the  words  "  he  shall  be  called  a  Nazarite"  as 
if  they  w^'re  proidietic  of  Jesus  Christ,  though  they  are 
nowhere  to  be  found  in  the  prophets;  Alatt.  xiii.  13-15  ap- 
plies to  the  following  of  Christ  what  Is.  vi.  0,  10  had  said 
of  his  own  contemporaries. 

Plausible  as  this  exception  may  appear  at  first  sight,  it 
does  not  rest  on  solid  ground,     a.   First  of  all.  the  author 


THE   VIRGIN  MOTHER.  337 

wlio  urges  it  does  not  distinguisli  between  the  typical  and 
the  literal  meaning  of  the  prophecies,  and  consequently  he 
does  not  keep  in  mind  that  as  the  literal  meaning  of  a 
prophecy  is  properly  and  not  by  mere  accommodation  ap- 
plied to  the  people  of  Israel  or  to  Old  Testament  occur- 
rences, so  may  its  typical  sense  be  applied  to  Christ  and 
to  events  of  the  Christian  dispensation  without  on  that 
account  becoming  a  mere  accommodation.  In  this  manner 
St.  Matthew  (ii.  15,  18)  applies  the  prophecies  of  Os.  xi.  1 
and  Jer.  xxxi.  15  to  Christ's  flight  into  Egypt  and  to  the 
slaughter  of  the  holy  Innocents.  /?.  Again,  Isenbiehl  is 
not  aware  that  St.  Matthew  ii.  23  most  jn'obably  reads 
"  flower,"  and  thus  alludes  to  Isaias'  prediction,  xi.  1,  where 
the  future  Messias  is  called  a  flower  from  the  root  of  Jesse. 
y.  In  the  third  place,  the  author  disregards  the  fact  that 
a  number  of  prophecies  apply  properly,  not  by  mere  ac- 
commodation, to  a  series  of  events  rather  than  to  any  single 
fact  of  history.  An  instance  of  such  a  prediction  we  find, 
e.g.,  in  II.  Kings  vii.  14,  wliere  the  divine  promises  regard 
the  whole  line  of  David's  descendants.  They  are  not  all 
fulfilled  in  every  member  of  the  series,  but  they  are  fully 
accomplished  in  the  whole  series  taken  collectively.  Hence 
they  may  be  properly  and  literally  ajiplied  to  any  Davidic 
king.  In  the  same  manner  St.  Matthew  applies  Is.  vi.  9, 
10  to  the  unbelieving  Jews  in  xiii.  13-15. 

h.  The  second  proof  for  the  Messianic  character  of  the 
prophecy  is  taken  from  tlie  unanimous  testimony  of  the 
Fathers  on  this  j^oint.  A  list  of  the  patristic  testimonies 
may  be  seen  in  Kilber's  Analysis  Biblica  (editio  altera,  t. 
i.  pj).  354  f.).  There  are  again  two  main  exceptions  to  this 
argument  from  the  Fathers:  1.  Tlie  Fathers  speak  on  the 
false  supjDosition  that  Isaias'  pro2:)liecy  rests  on  divine 
authority;  2.  The  Fathers  express  in  their  opinions  on  the 
present  passage,  not  the  doctrine  of  the  Church,  but  their 
own  private  conviction,  n.  As  to  the  first  exception,  it 
suffices  for  our  purpose  to  recall  the  decree  of  the  Vatican 
Council  (iii.  2),  according  to  which  the  agreement  of  the 


338  DIRT  I  I  OF  THE  MKSSIAS. 

Fiithcrs  on  u  doctriii.il  })uiiit  is  in  itself  suflicient  to  coni- 
inanil  our  iissent,  or  ut  Iciist  to  force  us  not  to  eontrucliet  the 
l);itristie  testimony.  (S.  As  to  the  second  exception,  we 
must  insist  that  the  Fathers  do  not  express  their  interpreta- 
tion of  the  prophecy  us  a  private  opinion,  but  they  repre- 
sent it  as  the  doctrine  of  the  Churcli  on  a  matter  of  Seri[)- 
ture  interpretation,  so  that  according  to  the  council  we  are 
bound  not  to  differ  from  it  in  substance.  For  though  the 
Fathers  may  differ  among  themselves  in  details,  they 
surely  agree  as  to  the  main  drift  of  the  prophecy,  giving  it 
a  Messianic  signification. 

c.  The  third  argument  for  the  Messianic  character  of 
Isaias'  })rophecy  may  be  taken  from  the  general  agreement 
of  this  prediction  with  other  evidently  Messianic  ])rophecies. 

(V.  First  of  all,  the  very  context  of  the  prophecy  bears  wit- 
ness to  its  Messianic  nature.  The  child  who  is  to  be  born, 
according  to  the  seventh  chapter,  as  a  sign  unto  Achaz  must 
naturally  be  expected  to  sur])ass  in  its  nature  any  other 
sign  that  Achaz  himself  could  have  asked  of  God.  Then 
in  the  next  cha])ter  it  is  announ(X'd  in  verse  8  that  "  the 
stretching  out  of  his  wings  shall  1111  the  breadth  of  thy 
hind,  0  Emmanuel."  If  we  compare  the  ninth  clia})ter 
with  this  statement,  it  appears  that  Emn)anuel  shall  be 
the  Lord  of  the  land  of  Juda.  Since  then  at  the  time  of 
the  prophet  none  other  than  Achaz  and  F^zechiel  were  the 
lords  of  the  land  of  Juda,  to  neither  of  whom  the  i)redic- 
tioii  could  ap})ly,  we  must  supi)ose  it  applies  to  some  one 
much  above  eitliei'  of  them— to  the  Messias  himself.  Again, 
in  the  ninth  chapter,  the  proi)het  predicts  salvation  to  the 
land  of  Juda  through  the  child  that  is  to  be  born.  Now 
if  this  l)e  not  Emmanuel,  of  whom  there  is  question  in  the 
seventh  chai)ter,  it  must  be  Maher-.Shalal,  of  the  eighth 
(diaptei'.  But  the  latter  w'as  never  king  in  Juda,  nor  did 
he  ever  perform  any  act  that  would  be  worthy  of  attention. 
Hence  it  is  clear  that  the  child  who  will  save  Juda  is  the 
l"'mnuinuel  of  chapter  seven.  Hut  the  liberator  of  Juda 
is   evidently  identical    with    the   Messias.      C^onsequently, 


THE   VIRGIN  MOTHER.  339 

the  Enniuinuel  of  our  prophecy  is  the  Messias.  In  tlie 
eleventli  chapter  the  prophet  again  returns  to  the  rod  that 
is  to  spring  from  the  root  of  Jesse,  to  the  most  renowned 
oti'spring  of  David,  wliose  i-eign  will  cause  universal  ^^eace, 
under  whose  reign  the  Lord  will  possess  the  remnant  of 
his  chosen  people.  Now  this  oiie  can  be  no  other  than  the 
hero  described  in  the  ninth  chapter,  and  the  Emmanuel 
promised  in  the  seventh  chapter,  i.e.,  the  very  Messias  (cf. 
ix.  2-4,  and  x.  20-22;  Rom.  ix.  27). 

fS.  The  Messianic  reference  of  the  present  jirophecy 
appears  also  when  we  compare  it  with  the  well-known 
prophecy  of  Micheas  (v.  2  ff.)  The  similitude  between  the 
two  predictions  is  so  striking  that  we  must  admit  either 
that  Isaias  reproduced  the  })rophecy  of  Micheas,  or  that  the 
latter  repeated  the  prophetic  promise  of  the  former.  Mi- 
cheas says  that  God  will  give  "  them  up  even  till  the  time 
wherein  she  that  travaileth  shall  bring  forth  and  the 
remnant  of  his  brethren  shall  be  converted  to  the  childi'en 
of  Israel  .  .  .  and  this  man  shall  be  our  peace."  How 
beautifully  all  this  illustrates  the  prophecy  of  Isaias,  if  we 
suppose  the  latter  prophet  had  about  the  same  time  uttered 
the  prediction  of  the  vii'gin's  conception  and  her  vir- 
ginal child-birth!  And,  on  the  other  hand,  how  clear  the 
prophecy  concerning  the  virgin  and  her  son  Emmanuel 
becomes  if  we  suppose  that  Isaias  alludes  to  the  prophecy 
of  Micheas  which  had  recently  been  uttered  (cf.  Is.  x.  20- 
22;  xi.  11;  iv.  3).  But  if  Isaias  sjieaks  about  a  virgin 
concerning  whom  nothing  else  was  known  to  the  people  of 
Israel,  all  becomes  a  riddle  and  an  enigma.  These  five 
prophecies  therefore  form,  as  it  were,  one  single  whole;  so 
much  so  that  they  have  l)een  regarded  as  constituting  a 
single  book — the  book  of  Emmanuel.  And  if  they  be  con- 
sidered from  this  point  of  view,  their  Messianic  character 
can  hardly  be  called  in  cpiestiou  even  by  the  most  exacting 
of  critics. 

d.  Three  other  arguments  for  the  Messianic  nature  of 


340  BIllTU  OF  TUE  MESSIA8. 

Isuias'  prophecy  lire  better  omitted,  since  they  are  not 
altogether  convincing. 

a.  For  if  it  be  urged  tliat  the  child  \vliich  is  to  be 
born  will  be  the  offspring  of  a  virgin,  and  that  this  is 
a  distinctly  Messianic  note,  it  must  be  remeinljered,  on 
the  other  hand,  that,  prescinding  from  the  K«'W  Testa- 
ment, it  is  not  clear  from  the  text  of  the  prophecy 
whether  the  promised  child  will  be  the  offspring  of  a  vir- 
gin in  any  otlier  sense  than  any  first-born  child  is  the  oft"- 
spring  of  a  virgin.  The  virgin  may  be  said  by  the  prophet 
to  conceive  and  to  bring  forth,  as  the  blind  are  said  to  see, 
the  deaf  to  hear,  and  the  lame  to  walk.  Nor  can  it  be 
maintained  that  the  virgin  must  remain  a  virgin  in  her 
conception  and  delivery,  because  otherwise  tliere  would  be 
no  sign  which  the  prophet  had  promised  to  give.  For  the 
sign  may  consist  in  the  wonderful  nature  of  the  child,  or 
in  several  otlier  particulars  connected  with  the  predic- 
tion, as  will  be  seen  in  the  course  of  the  commentary. 

fi.  Another  argument  for  the  j\Iessianic  character  of  the 
prediction  is  based  on  the  fact  that  in  the  jjrophecy  there 
is  question  of  "the  virgin;"  the  definite  article,  it  is 
claimetl,  indicates  that  the  virgin  spoken  of  is  virgin  by 
excellence,  and  not  merely  as  the  mother  of  any  first-born 
child  is  a  virgin.  But  this  consideration  has  not  much 
weight,  since  the  definite  article  in  Hebrew  has  not  neces- 
sarily that  meaning,  even  when  it  is  used  with  a  noun  that 
does  not  occur  Ijcforehand.  For  even  in  that  case  the  noun 
is  at  times  considered  sutticiently  known  to  require  or,  at 
least,  to  admit  the  definite  article.  This  is  seen  in  Gen. 
iii.  •^4:  ''and  (he)  placed  before  the  paradise  of  pleasure 
Ciicrubim  (llcb.,  the  Cherubim)";  Ex.  xv. '.'O:  "So  Mary 
the  prophetess,  the  sister  of  Aaron,  took  a  timbrel  (lleb., 
the  timbrel)  in  her  hand;"  Gen.  xiv.  13: "and  behold  one 
that  liad  escajjcd  (lleb.,  the  one  that  had  escaped)  told 
Abram  the  Hebrew." 

y.  Other  authors,  again,  have  urged  the  following 
argument   in  favor  of   the  Messianic  character  of  Isaias' 


THE   VIRGIN  MOTHER.  341 

prophecy:  according  to  the  Hebrew  text  it  is  the  mother 
who  will  name  the  child  Emmanuel;  for  we  must  either 
render  "thou  shalt  call  his  name"  (the  i)hrase  being  a 
direct  address  to  the  mother),  or  "  slie  shall  call  his  naine." 
Therefore,  they  sny,  Emmanuel  has  no  hunum  fatlier  who 
can  perform  this  duty.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  we  see  in 
the  Old  Testament  that  the  mother  in  several  instances 
named  her  child,  although  its  father  was  actually  present 
(cf.  Gen.  iv.  1,  25;  xix.  37;  xxi.  32;  xxx.  18  1;  xxx.  24;  I. 
Kings  i.  20,  etc.,  exemplifying  this  statement). 

e.  But  tliere  is  another  proof  for  the  Messianic  reference 
of  Isaias'  prediction  which  cannot  be  omitted  here;  Jewish 
tradition  considered  the  passage  as  referring  to  the  prom- 
ised Messias.  In  the  first  place,  we  may  draw  attention  to 
the  fact  that  St.  Matthew  applied  the  prophecy  to  Jesus 
Christ  without  any  one  contradicting  him.  And  this  is 
the  more  remarkable,  since  the  Evangelist  wrote  his  gospel 
for  the  Jews,  proving  to  them  the  Messiassliip  of  Jesus 
from  the  fulfilment  of  all  the  2)rophecies  in  his  sacred  per- 
son. Besides,  we  have  the  implicit  avowal  of  the  LXX. 
translators,  who  rendered  the  Hebrew  word  "  virgin " 
in  this  projihecy,  though  in  four  other  passages  they  had 
translated  it  by  "  woman."  Then  again  the  Hebrew  as  well 
as  the  other  national  traditions,  according  to  which  virgin- 
ity is  wortliy  of  special  honor,  and  which  make  their  divine 
heroes  sons  of  virgins,  without  tlie  intercourse  of  man,  show 
that  Isaias'  prophecy  must  luive  been  understood  by  the 
ancients  as  referring  to  the  birth  of  the  future  Redeemer. 

Is.  VII.  1-17. 

And  it  came  to  pass  in  the  days  of  Achaz  the  son  of  Joathan, 
the  son  of  Ozias.  king  of  Juda,  that  Rasin  king  of  Syria,  and 
Phacee  the  son  of  Ronielia  king  of  Israel,  came  up  to  Jerusalem, 
to  fight  against  it  ;  but  tliey  coukl  not  prevail  over  it.  And  they 
told  the  house  of  David,  saying:  "Syria  hath  rested  upon 
Ephraim  ;  "  and  his  lieart  was  moved,  and  the  heart  of  his  people, 
as  tlie  trees  of  the  woods  are  moved  with  the  wind.     And  the 


342  BlltTlI  OF  TllK  MKi>SIAS. 

liord  said  to  Lsaias  :  '  "  Go  forlli  tt)  iiiect  Acliaz,  tlioii  and  Jasiil> 
thy  sou  that  is  h^ft,  at  tlio  oiid  of  llie  conduit  of  \\\v  upper  pool, 
in  the  way  of  the  fuller's  field."     "And  thou  shalt  say  to  iiiin  : 

'  Go  forth  to  meet  Achaz.  'I'lie  lirst  sentences  of  Isaias'  aceount 
are  clear  from  the  iiistorical  paraj^raphs  that  have  heen  premised  to 
this  prophecy.  \N'hile  iJasin  hesief^ed  Klath,  l'hace(!  had  endeavored 
to  deal  with  the  capital  ;  "  but  they  could  not  ])revail."  After  Klath 
had  fallen  into  Uasin's  hands,  tin;  latter  joined  his  troops  with  those 
of  I'hacee,  "  Syria  hath  rested  upon  Kphraim,"  whereupon  Achaz' 
heart  was  moved  and  the  heart  of  his  peoi)le,  as  the  trees  of  the 
woods  are  moved  with  the  wind.  Prejjarations  for  a  serious  and  pro- 
tracted siege  must  now  be  made  at  Jerusalem  ;  hence  Achaz  is  occu- 
j)ied  near  the  upper  jiool  from  which  the  city  liad  to  receive  the 
greatest  i)artof  its  water  sui)ply.  'I'lie  fuller's  field,  i.e.,  their  wash- 
ing or  bleacliing-place,  lay  either  on  the  western  side  of  the  city 
(Hohinson,  Schultz,  van  Haunier,  Thenius,  I'nruh,  Schick,  etc.),  or, 
according  to  a  less  jnohable  opinion,  to  the  northeast  (Williams, 
Kraft,  ^leit!r,  ilitzig,  etc.).  'i"o  this  place,  then,  tin;  prophet  was  told 
to  repair,  togt^ther  with  Jasuh,  or  Shear-Jasub,  his  son.  'I'he  very 
uanies  of  the  two  visitors  were  real  syndjols  of  their  divine  nussiou. 
Isaias,  meaning  "salvation  of  the  JiOrd,"  announces  the  hopeful 
character  of  tiie  visitation,  while  "  Sheur-Jasub,"  meaning  "  tlio 
remnant  shall  return,"  or  ''  the  renuiant  is  ci>nverted,"  is  in  itself  a 
conoMc-ntary  on  Is.  vi.  11-1;5,  anil  cond/mes  in  a  brief  sumnuiry  tiod's 
thrt'ats  and  promises.  There  will  be  final  safety  for  Israel,  but  oidy 
for  its  remnant,  so  that  the  divine  curse  in  a  manner  precedes  the 
divine  blessing. 

''  And  thou  shalt  say  to  him.  The  divine  message  to  Achaz  may  be 
diviiled  into  ihret;  i)arts  :  1.  (iod  warns  the  king  to  "be  (piiet,"  i.e., 
not  to  act  precii)itately,  anil  not  to  be  afraiil  of  the  two  tails  of  the.so 
fire-brands,  i.e.,  the  two  fag-endsof  wood-pokers,  half  burned  otT  and 
wholly  burned  out,  so  tliat  they  do  not  burn,  but  keep  on  smoking. 
'l.  In  the  second  i)lace(ioil  gives  Achaz  a  prophecy  in  order  to  show 
him  that  his  advice  indicates  the  projier  course  to  follow.  In  the 
introduction  to  this  i)rediction  the  prophet  summarizes  the  whole 
situation  of  the  three  kings  ;  then  he  assures  Achaz  in  general  terms 
that  the  intentions  of  the  king  of  Syria  and  of  Sanuiria  will  not  be 
l)ut  into  practice  :  "  It  shall  not  stand,  and  this  shall  not  be  !"  After 
this  general  jjrediction,  Isaias  adds  three  more  prophecies  regarding 
the  special  fate  of  the  three  kingitoms  concerned,  a.  Syria  is  to  gain 
nothing  by  the  umlertaking.  It  will  be  in  future,  as  it  lias  been  in 
the  past :  "  the  hi-adof  Syria  is  Damascus,  and  the  head  of  Damascus 
is  Uasin."  /.;.  Heganiing  Samaria  the  proi)het  utters  a  double  j)redic- 
tion  :  the  first  has  reference  to  the  far-off  future,  "  within  three.score 
and  five  years  Kphraim  sliall  cease  to  be  a  peoi)le  ;"  the  second  is 
concerned  with  the  immediate  future  of  the  northern  kingdom,  "  the 
head  of  Kphraim  is  Sanuiria,  and  the  head  of  Samaria  the  sou  of 
Uomelia." 

It  may  be  noted  in  jiassing  that  the  sixty-five  years  assigned  to  the 
time  of  Samaria's  final  destruction  do  not  end  with  the  beginning  of 
the  Assyrian  captivity,  which  began  in  722  MX.,  but  terminate  at  the 


THE   VIROIN  MOTHER.  843 

"  See  thou  be  quiet ;  fear  not,  and  let  not  thy  lieart  be  afraid  of 
the  two  tails  of  these  firebrands,  smoking  with  the  wrath  of  the 
fuiy  of  Rasin  king  of  Syria  and  of  the  son  of  Romelia.  Because 
Syria  with  the  son  of  Romelia  hath  taken  counsel  against  thee, 
unto  the  evil  of  Ephraim,  saying :  Let  us  go  up  to  Juda,  and 
rouse  it  up,  and  draw  it  away  to  us  and  make  the  son  of  Tabeel 

time  when  Assyrian  settlers  were  colonizing  Samaria  under  the  reign 
of  Asarbaddon.  For  since  the  present  prophecy  was  uttered  in  the 
beginning  of  Acbaz'  reign,  the  14  years  of  that  king,  together  with 
the  29  years  of  bis  successor  Ezecbias  and  the  22  years  which  his 
successor  Manasses  ruled  before  be  was  carried  off  to  the  land  of 
his  exile,  will  give  about  the  required  number  of  65  years.  We 
know  that  this  exi)lanation  of  the  Go  years  rests  on  several  supposi- 
tions that  are  not  absolutely  certain  ;  they  are,  however,  sufficiently 
probable  to  justify  our  conjecture.  For  though  the  year  in  which 
Samaria  was  thus  colonized  is  not  certain,  it  seems  very  natural  that 
this  should  have  taken  place  after  the  defeat  of  Manasses,  which  the 
Talmud  in  the  tract  "Seder  01am"  places  in  the  22d  year  of 
Manasses'  reign. 

This  explanation,  in  itself  very  probable,  becomes  still  more  so 
when  compared  with  other  attempts  of  interpretation  that  have  l)een 
given  concerning  the  passage,  a.  For  some  contend  that  the  term 
from  which  the  (55  years  must  be  reckoned  is  the  time  when  Amos 
(vii.  11,  17)  gave  utterance  to  his  prophecy,  i.e.,  the  25th  year  of 
Ozias.  The  term  at  which  the  65  years  end  is  the  6th  "year  of 
Ezecbias,  when  Samaria  was  subdued  in  war  and  ceased  to  be  a  king- 
dom. The  65  years  are,  then  :  27  under  Ozias,  16  under  Joatban,  16 
under  Acbaz,  and  6  under  Ezecbias  (Euseb.,  Procop.,  Barb.,  Haimo, 
St.  Thom.,  Malv.,  Pint.,  Maid.,  Lap.,  Mar.,  Gordon,  Scbegg,  and  cer- 
tain Jewish  commentators).  It  is  plain  that  this  exposition  of  the 
text  hardly  agrees  with  the  words  of  Isaias.  (i.  Another  way  of  in- 
terpreting the  65  years  is  found  in  Sanchez,  Kobling,  Oppert,  etc.; 
according  to  this  view  the  years  refer  to  the  past,  so  that  the  term  to 
which  they  bring  us  is  the  27th  year  of  Jeroboam  II.,  when  Samaria 
was  for  10  years  deprived  of  its  independence  by  Syria.  The  sense 
of  the  passage  is  then  that,  as  in  the  past  Samaria" has  suffered  re- 
verses in  war,  so  it  will  in  the  future  be  entirely  destroyed.  But  the 
Hebrew  particle  that  precedes  the  numljer  65*  points  "to  the  future 
rather  than  to  the  past  (be'od).  y.  There  is  still  another  class  of 
interpreters  who  explain  the  difficulty  by  endeavoring  to  remove  it 
entirely  ;  the  second  jiart  of  verse  8  is,  according  to  these  authors,  to 
be  expunged  from  the  text  as  an  interjiolation.  The  principal  reasons 
for  this  o])ini<)n  an-  reduced  to  the  following  :  the  ]>rf)])liecv  becomes 
too  definite  by  the  number  65,  and  the  second  mend)er  of  verse  8  de- 
stroys the  metrical  harmony  and  poetic  parallelism  of  the  passage 
(Eichhorn,  (lesenius,  Maurer,  Hitzig,  Ewald,  ITmbreit,  Dietrich).  On 
the  other  hand,  the  exact  number  of  years  stated  by  the  prophet  can- 
not seem  oltjectionable  to  any  one  who  admits  the  supernatural  char- 
acter of  the  jircdiction.  The  phraseology  of  8/(.  is  in  strict  accord 
with  that  of  Isuias  in  other  passages  (cf.  .\xi.  16;  xvii.  1  ;  xxv.  2). 


344  BIRTH  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

king  in  the  midst  thereof:"  tbns  saitli  the  Lord  God  :  "It  shall 
not  stand,  and  this  shall  not  be  !  But  the  head  of  Syria  is  Damas- 
cus, and  the  head  of  Damascus  is  Kasin,  and  within  threescore 
and  five  years  Ephraim  shall  cease  to  be  a  people.  And  the  head 
of  Ephraim  is  Samaria,  and  the  head  of  Samaria  the  son  of 
Romelia.     If  you  will  not  believe,  you  shall  not  continue." 

The  parallelism  rather  demands  than  excludes  the  second  part  of 
verse  8,  since  it  will  be  seen  that  concerning  Juda  too  the  prophet 
])rodicts  both  the  immediate  and  the  far-off  state  of  affairs  (cf. 
Delitzsch,  i.  pp.  199  ff. ;  Knabenb.,  i.  p.  l.')6). 

r.  Tlie  third  prophecy  wliich  the  seer  utters  concerns  Juda,  indi 
cutingf  the  general  method  which  the  Lord  will  follow  in  his  future 
dealings  with  that  statt^  ;  it  is  both  throateniiig  and  conditional  in  its 
nature.  "  If  you  do  not  believe,  you  shall  not  continue."  The  only 
condition,  then,  on  which  .Juda  can  retain  its  political  independence 
is  full  trust  in  (iod ;  Assyrian  help  will  lie.  no  safeguard  again.st  po- 
litical destruction. 

3.  Tlie  tliird  part  of  Isaias'  prophetic  mission  to  Achaz  consists  in 
trying  wluitlier  Juda  does  trust  the  Lord.  Juda  is  represented  by  the 
actual  head  of  David's  royal  house, — Ijy  Acliaz, — so  tliat  on  Achaz' 
faith  or  unfaith  depends  the  safety  of  the  theocracy.  ( Jod's  decree  is  : 
If  .luda  does  not  believe,  it  shall  not  continue.  But  does  Juda  be- 
lieve? The  trial  will  show  it.  "Ask  thee  a  sign  of  the  l^ord  thy 
(lod."  If  the  sign  is  asked,  this  will  i)rove  a  suHicient  token  of 
Juda's  trust  in  the  Lord  (iod.  Ibit  Juda  answers  in  its  rejiresenta 
tive  :  "I  will  not  ask,  and  I  will  not  tempt  the  Lord."  The  king's  by- 
jiocritical  answer  decides  the  fate  of  Juda  for  more  than  two  thousand 
years,  as  far  as  our  cKperience  goes.  Alluding  to  Deut.  vi.  1(»,  where 
jiresumption  is  forbicbb-n,  Achaz  seeks  in  that  ]ias.'jage  a  rloak  for 
his  continuanc(!  in  bis  Assyrian  policy.  Deliverance  he  desire.s,  but 
does  not  expect  or  wish  it  through  (Jod's  help. 

Juda's  trial  over,  the  prophet  announces  more  in  jtarticular  the 
future  fate  of  tlie  kingdom.  Moie  in  particular,  Ave  say,  because  it 
has  been  aimounced  aireaily  in  general  terms.  "  If  you  do  not  be- 
lieve, you  shall  not  contimie."  Hut  you  do  not  believe.  Therefore 
you  sliall  not  continue.  TIk;  detaileil  description  of  Juda's  future  re 
gards  first  its  far-otT  future  ,  secondly,  its  nearer  future,  a.  As  to  the 
far-off  future  of  Juda,  tin?  child  Knunanuel,  who  sliall  be  born  ol"  the 
well-known  virgin,  the  stay,  the  hop(\  the  (Towning  glory  of  David'.s 
royal  hou.se,  "sluill  eat  butter  and  honey,"  i.e.,  be  shall  live  in  tiie 
country  of  butter  and  lioney,  outside  of  Juda,  and  consecpienfly  in 
exilt!  ;  and  he  shall  eat  butter  and  honey,  tlu'  food  of  the  poor  and  tlio 
lowly,  so  that  at  his  time  tlu-  royal  lioust'  of  i)avid  will  be  reduced  to 
])overty  and  exile.  Ii.  In  the  ininu'diate  future  tlie  fate  of  .luda  will  be 
varied  ;  l)efore  the  child  that  is  apjiealed  too  woiittl  attain  tlu^  use  of 
reason,  it  it  wer(^  born  hert^  and  now,  the  two  hostile  kings  will  have 
disa])])eared  from  the  confines  of  .luda;  but  since  .-Vchaz  has  been 
found  wanting  in  faith,  the  .Assyrian,  in  whom  lie  trusts,  will  invade 
Juda  and  make  it  the  battle-ground  between  his  and  the  Kgyptian 
armies. 


THE   VIROm  MOTHER.  345 

And  the  Lord  spoke  again  to  Achaz,  saying;    '*Ask  thee'  a 

'A  sign.  The  prophecy  speaks  of  a  double  sign  :  1.  Achaz  is  in- 
vited to  ask  for  a  sign  ;  2.  the  prophet  himself  gives  a  sign.  Both 
signs  call  for  a  word  of  explanation.  1.  Isaias  invites  Achaz  to  ask 
for  a  sign.  a.  Ilitzig  maintains  that  the  prophet  here  "played  a 
dangerous  game,"  in  which  the  Lord  would  surely  have  "left  him  in 
the  lurch,"  if  the  king  had  chosen  to  ask  for  a  sign.  Meier  observes 
that  it  cannot  have  entered  the  prophet's  mind  to  wish  for  a  miracle. 
De  Lagarde  says  that  the  failure  of  his  sign  would  have  .subjected 
the  prophet  to  punishment  for  lying.  But  all  these  are  mere  a 
priori  arguments,  resting  on  the  supposition  that  miracles  do  not 
happen,  h  Omitting  the  question  whether  we  ought  to  render  the 
prophet's  words  "  ask  it  either  in  the  depth  or  in  the  height  above  " 
or  "make  it  deep  unto  Sheol  or  heighten  it  to  on  high,"  it  must 
suffice  to  enumerate  a  few  opinions  regarding  the  nature  of  the  offered 
sign  .  ex.  Choose  between  seeing  the  earth  split  down  to  the  abyss  of 
hell,  and  beholding  the  heavens  opened  to  the  throne  of  the  Most 
High  (Haimo,  Pint.,  Sasb. ,  Lap  ,  Men.)  (i  The  sign  in  the  heavens 
might  be  similar  to  that  granted  to  Josue  (Jos.  x.  12),  or  to  the  thun- 
der, the  storm,  and  the  fire  which  occurred  in  the  days  of  Samuel  and 
Elias  (L  Kings  xii.  17  ,  IV.  Kings  i.  10),  while  the  sign  in  the  deep 
might  resemble  the  destruction  of  Core,  Dathan  and  Abiron,  or  the 
death  of  the  Egyptians  in  the  Red  Sea,  or  again  the  miraculous  de- 
liverance of  Jonas  from  the  belly  of  the  great  fish  (Basil,  Procop., 
Thorn.,  Sanch.,  Calmet). 

2.  The  prophet  promises  a  sign  in  spite  of,  or  rather  because  of, 
Achaz'  refusal  to  ask  for  one.  Explanations  .  a.  Delitzsch  (p.  210) 
is  of  opinion  that  the  sign  consists  in  the  mystery  which  surrounds 
the  prediction  about  the  pregnant  virgin  bringing  forth  a  son — a 
mystery  which  threatens  the  house  of  David,  and  which  affords  com- 
fort to  the  prophet  and  to  all  believers.  It  hardly  needs  proof  that 
such  a  mystery  is,  at  best,  a  very  unsatisfactory  explanation  of  the 
promised  sign.  h.  The  sign  consists  in  the  prophet's  prediction  that 
a  certain  virgin  would  conceive  in  her  fir.st  intercourse  with  man, 
that  she  would  give  birth  to  a  son  rather  than  a  daughter,  and  that 
this  son  would  be  called  Emmanuel — a  name  which  resembled  in  its 
symbolic  meaning  the  names  of  Isaias'  two  sons.  a.  But,  according 
to  this  explanation,  Emmanuel  is  entirely  distinct  from  the  INIessias. 
which  contradicts  the  above  proofs  for  the  Messianic  character  of  the 
prophecy,  (i.  Again,  history  knows  nothing  of  a  son  called  Em- 
manuel whose  age  of  discretion  was  accompanied  by  the  liberation 
of  Judafroni  the  kings  of  Syria  and  Samaria,  c.  The  sign  consists 
in  the  prediction  of  Juda's  lil)eration  from  the  oppression  of  its  ene- 
mies, a.  But  the  whole  context  would  in  this  manner  become  ex- 
tremely insipid  and  meaningless,  fi.  Besides,  the  sign  is  intended 
to  strengthen  the  king's  faith  in  the  divine  promise  of  Juda's  future 
liberation,  and  can  therefore  be  hardly  identified  with  this  prophetic 
promise,  d.  Tin;  sign  consists  wholly  in  the  fact  that  a  virgin,  re- 
maining virgin,  will  conceive  and  give  birth  to  a  son — the  very  Ein- 
ntanuel,  or  tlie  i)romised  Messias.  (f.  This  ex])]anation  supposes  tiiat 
the  sign  that  God  gives  to  Achaz  is  a  wholly  favorable  sign.     Now 


346  BIRTH  OF  TUE  MESSIAS. 

sign  of  the  Lord  thy  God,  eitlier  unto  the  depth  of  hell  or  unto 

it  appears  from  the  context  that  this  cannot  ho  the  <'ase.  Juda  has 
not  believed  ;  tlicrefore  it  will  not  continue  ;  therefore  "  the  Lord 
himself  sliall  give  a  sign  "  to  Jiula.  /i.  The  sign  must  represent  tlie 
double  character  of  (iod's  dealing  with  David's  royal  house  :  he  will 
chastise  it  with  the  rod  of  men,  but  will  not  take  away  his  mercy 
from  it.  Now  the  fact  that  tlie  Messias  will  l)e  born  of  a  virgin,  re- 
maining a  virgin  in  his  conception  and  birth  illustrates  only  (Jod's 
mercy  to  the  hous(^  of  Oavid,  but  does  not  exhibit  his  justice,  e. 
The  sign  consists  jjartially  in  tlie  virginal  l)irtli  of  tlie  ^lessias,  but 
partially  also  in  his  having  to  eat  butter  anil  honey,  i.e.,  in  his  hav- 
ing to  live  far  away  from  the  capital  of  his  ancestors  in  poverty  and 
exile.  The  composite  character  of  this  sign  satisfies  the  two  essential 
conditions  which  it  reipiires  :  cr.  God's  mercy  will  not  depart  from 
David's  royal  house,  since  the  Messias  will  be  born  indeed,  /i.  (iod 
will,  however,  chasti.se  the  royal  house  of  Juda,  since  its  worldly 
glory  will  be  humbled  to  the  dust  of  the  earth,  y.  The  phrase  "  he 
shall  eat  butter  and  honey  "  implies  sucli  a  state  of  humiliation  as  is 
re(|uired  l)y  the  context.  For  "  butter  and  honey  "  means  either  the 
thickened  milk  and  honey,  which  are  the  usual  fcjod  of  the  tenderest 
ag(!  of  childhood  ((lesenius,  llengstenberg,  etc.),  or  the  food  that  is 
usually  taken  in  the  desert  (Delitz.sch).  Now  the  former  of  these 
two  meanings  is  excluded  by  the  sentences  that  follow  the  i)hrase 
"  lie  shall  eat  butter  and  honey."  For  in  them  the  child  is,  on  the 
one  hand,  rejiresented  as  eating  the  assigned  food  up  to  the  years  of 
discretion,  and,  on  the  other,  the  land  before  whose  two  kings  Acha/ 
is  in  terror  will  before  the  same  period  of  time  !)e  laid  waste,  so  that 
only  the  food  of  the  desert  will  remain  (cf.  Delit/.sch,  jip.  210  f.). 

There  are,  however,  two  main  difficulties  against  this  exi)laiiation 
of  the  i>ropliecy  :  1.  The  Messias  will  be  born  more  than  700  years 
after  the  date;  of  the  prediction.  His  virginal  conception  and  birth, 
and  his  poverty  and  humility  cannot  tlien  be  given  as  a  sign  to  the 
contemporaries  of  Isaias.  2.  According  to  the  text  Hasin  and 
Pliacee  will  leave  Judea  before  the  child  shall  attain  his  years  of  dis- 
cretion ;  now  this  ha])iiened  within  two  years  after  the  ]>redictinn. 
Again,  according  to  verse  22,  Judea  itself  shall  l)e  devastated,  so  that 
"  butter  and  honey  shall  every  ont;  eat  that  shall  be  left  in  the  midst 
of  the  land."  Kmniaiuud  too  shall  share  this  fate,  as  ajijiears  from 
the  connection  of  the  jiropliecy.  Now  Judea's  devastation  by  the 
Assyrians  hapi)ened  after  they  liad  laid  wast(>  the  kingdoms  of  Syria 
and  Samaria.  Hence  it  seems  that  thi>  promis<'d  Fmmanuel  must 
have  been  born  imme<liately  after  the  time  of  tlie  propliecy. 

DilTerent  answers  have  been  given  to  both  dilliculties.  Answers 
to  the  first  exce])tion  :  ti.  The  sign  must  jirecede  the  event  in  con- 
lirmalion  of  which  it  is  given  when  there  is  question  of  a  common 
miraculous  sign  ;  but  in  the  case  cd'  a  ])rophecy,  when  the  oni- who 
utters  the  ])rediction  is  generally  acknowledged  as  a  jirophet.  it  is  not 
necessary  that  the  fulfiinu-nt  precede  the  event  in  confirmation  of 
which  it  is  given.  Similar  instances  we  find  in  I.  ivings  x.  2-N  ;  l'",\. 
iii.  12;  IV.  Kings  xix.  211  ;  Is.  xxxvii.  ;!0.  In  the  case  of  I.^aias^e 
inay    add    the    following   cnnsideralion  :    It    might    well    be    that    the 


THE    VIRGIN  MOTHER.  347 

the  height  above."     And  Achfiz  said  :  "  I  will  not  ask,  and  I  will 

king  and  the  people  generally  acknowledged  the  prophetic  character 
of  Isaias  in  religious  matters,  and  in  matters  connected  with  the 
future  Redeemer,  but  did  not  acknowledge  the  divine  character  of 
his  political  mission  to  Achaz.  Since  he,  therefore,  did  not  find 
faith  in  the  latter  among  his  contemporaries,  he  confirmed  his  divine 
mission  by  a  Messianic  i)rophecy.  It  is  clear  that  such  a  sign  needed 
not  to  be  seen  or  verified  by  experience  in  order  to  have  its  full  effect 
with  those  whom  the  prophet  addressed  ,  still,  there  are  authors  who 
refer  us  to  the  experience  which  the  prophet's  hearers  were  to  have 
in  limbo  of  the  prophecy's  fulfilment  (Jo.  viii.  56). 

h.  Drach  follows  St.  Chrysostom  (Lettres  d'un  Kabbin  converti,  3e. 
lettre,  pp.  30,  31)  and  Theodoret  in  explaining  the  sign  as  one  that 
necessarily  implies  the  thing  signified.  The  two  hostile  kings,  they 
say,  were  about  to  exterminate  the  house  of  David  (Is.  vii.  6),  in  order 
to  make  'raV)eel  king  instead  of  Achaz.  The  pro])het  comes  with  the 
assurance  that  the  enemies  will  so  jmorly  succeed  in  their  attenij)t 
that  the  house  of  David  will  even  after  seven  hundred  years  giv(> 
birth  to  the  promised  Messias.  But  it  may  be  observed.  <».  that  tlicf 
two  hostile  kings  did  not  necessarily  wish  to  exterminate  the  whole 
house  of  David  in  order  to  accomplish  their  design;  (i.  that  the  sal 
vution  of  the  house  of  David  does  not  necessarily  im])ly  Achaz'  do 
liverance  from  his  two  enemies  at  the  juncture  for  which  the  i)rophet 
predicted  it;  ;'.  according  to  this  explanation  the  ])rophet  would 
have  had  to  foretell  in  clear  language  the  Messias'  descent  from 
David's  royal  house.  Though  this  may  be  gathered  from  Is.  ix.  and 
xi.,  it  is  not  clearly  stated  in  Is.  vii. 

c.  A  third  answer  to  the  difficulty  has  been  offered  by  Ilengsten- 
berg.  According  to  this  author,  with  whom  Corluy  appears  to  agree 
(Spicil.  i.  p.  409),  the  prophet's  argument  is  (t  fortiori,  so  that  we  may 
propose  it  in  this  manner  .  <iod  will  give  to  the  house  of  David  the 
very  Emmanuel,  the  son  of  the  virgin  ;  therefore,  he  will  not  refuse 
it  what  is  much  less — liberation  from  its  present  enemies.  A  similar 
mann<^r  of  reasoning  we  find  in  Hom.  viii.  32;  in  point  of  fact,  the 
prophet's  inference  was  truly  logical  :  the  future  Messias  was  the 
source  of  all  blessings  for  the  whole  human  race,  and  therefore  we 
find  that  both  Isaias  and  P]zechiel  console  the  jieople  with  similar 
reasonings  under  the  most  trying  circumstances.  But  on  the  other 
hand,  this  explanation  by  far  exceeds  the  obvious  meaning  of  the 
passage,  and  should  not  be  accei)ted  without  necessity.  The  first 
answer  seems  to  be,  after  all,  the  most  satisfactory. 

The  second  difficulty  finds  a  contradiction  between  the  context  of 
the  prediction  and  its  Messianic  interi)retation,  because  according  to 
the  latter  the  virgin's  son  must  be  born  after  seven  centuries,  while 
according  to  the  former  the  virgin's  son  must  be  born  in  the  imme- 
diate future.  There  is  no  need  of  repeating  here  the  divers  explana 
tions  of  this  difficulty  which  deny  the  Messianic  character  of  the  pre- 
diction, since  they  have  been  duly  considered  in  the  preceding  para- 
graphs. We  shall  limit  ourselves  to  a  few  explanations  that  may  be 
admitted  by  Catholic  theologians  : 

a.  Rich.    Simon,    13.    Lamy,    Iluetius,  Moldenhauer,  Tirinus,  etc  , 


348  BIRTH  OF  THE  MESSIAB. 

not  tempt  the  Lord."    And  lie  said  :  "  Hoar  ye  therefore,  0  house 

distinguish  here,  as  in  other  prophecies,  between  the  literal  and  the 
typical  sense  of  the  prediction  In  the  literal  sense,  Emmanuel  is 
Isaias'  son  who  was  called  Mahershalal-chashbaz  (Is.  viii.  3);  the  vir- 
gin is  the  prophetess  whom  Lsaius  had  married  when  she  was  a  vir- 
gin (Is.  viii.  3).  This  explanation  is  based  on  the  following  reasons  : 
(f.  Almost  immediately  after  the  prediction  of  the  l)oy's  concejjtion 
and  birth,  \\w  prophet  descrilies  the  conception  and  birth  of  Maher- 
Shalal,  before  whose  attaining  the  years  of  discretion  the  land  was 
freed  from  its  two  oppressors,  as  Isaias  has  foretold  aljout  Emmanuel 
(Is.  viii.  1-3).  fi.  In  Is.  viii.  18  the  prophet  explicitly  appeals  to 
his  two  sons,  whom  God  had  given  him  as  a  sign  for  Israel,  y.  The 
fact  that  Isaias'  son  of  whom  he  speaks  viii.  1-3  is  not  called  Emman- 
uel does  not  contradict  the  ex])lanation,  since  Emmanuel  signified 
rather  the  ])resent  help  of  God  than  the  actual  name  of  the  cliiid  to 
be  born  ;  this  must  occasion  so  much  the  less  difficulty,  since  not 
even  J(>sus  received  actually  all  the  names  that  had  been  given  him  in 
Is.  ix.  0.  According  to  this  view  the  words  "  he  shall  eat  butter  and 
honey  "  mean  only  that  Emmanuel  will  be  nourished  with  the  food 
usually  given  to  children,  until  he  will  know  how  to  refuse  the  evil 
and  to  choose  the  good.  (5.  In  accordance  with  the  same  view  Em- 
manuel typically  signifies  the  Messias,  as  the  virgin  mother  is  a  type 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  conceiving  and  giving  birth  to  her  son  without 
detriment  to  her  virginity.  The  lil)erutioM  of  Judea  is  the  type  of 
the  Messianic  salvation  from  the  yoke  of  sin  and  satan. 

Still,  there  are  various  considerations  ai>t  to  make  us  dissatisfied 
with  this  explanation,  a.  In  the  first  place,  the  type  must  properly 
represent  its  antitype,  in  that  wherein  it  is  a  type.  Now,  a  married 
woman,  conceiving  in  the  ordinary,  natural  manner,  does  not  prop- 
erly represent  a  virginal  conception  and  a  virginal  motherhood. 
Nevertheless,  St.  Matthew  testifies  that  Isaias'  prophecy  was  fulfilled 
precisely  in  the  virginal  concejition  of  Jesus  Christ.  <'onse(^uently, 
the  ])rophetic  passage  cannot  literally  apply  to  a  married  wonum,  such 
as  the  wife  of  Isaias  was.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  St.  Matthew  had 
no  intention  of  insisting  in  his  gospel  on  the  virginal  conception  of 
Jesus,  but  that  he  merely  insists  on  his  being  conceived  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  that  he  thus  argued  from  the  conception  of  Emmanuel, 
who  too  was  conceived  through  the  special  mediatorship  of  (tod.  For 
this  excejition  is  against  the  whole  contfxt  of  the  Evangelist.  St. 
Matthew  tells  us  how  the  angel  solved  St.  Joseph's  doulit  concerning 
the  mysterious  pregnancy  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  revelation  of 
her  virginal  conception  alone  could  fully  allay  St.  Joseph's  anxiety 
regarding  this  matter.  Besides  all  this,  the  Fathers  insist  repeatedly 
tliat  Isaius'  ])rophecy  has  been  fulfilled  by  the  virginal  conception  of 
the  Son  of  (Jod. 

(i.  Tlien,  again,  the  son  of  Isaias  by  the  ]iro]dietess  cannot  be  the 
Emuuuuu'l  mentioned  in  Isaias  vii.  For  it  is  higiily  improbable  that 
one  and  the  same  chibl  should  have  received,  at  the  express  wish  of 
(lod,  two  entirely  ditTerent  syml)olical  names.  Nor  can  the  )>ro]>h- 
etess  be  the  virgin  mentioned  in  the  prophecy  ;  for  the  view  that 
Isaias  marritMi  after  tin;   present  prophecy  a  virgin  with  whom  he 


The  virgin  mother.  349 

of  David  :  Is  it  a  small  thing  for  you  to  be  grievous  to  men,  that 

had  intercourse  rests  on  nothing  but  a  mere  conjecture,  which  in 
itself  is  most  improbable.  And  if  Emmanuel's  mother  was  identical 
with  Maher-Shalal's  mother,  why  should  not  Isaias  have  said  :  "  Be- 
hold, the  prophetess  shall  conceive  .  .  ."  ?  or  what  could  have  pre- 
vented his  saying-:  "and  I  went  to  the  virgin  .  ,  ."  ?  Besides, 
there  seems  to  be  no  point  of  resemblance  between  Maher-Shalal,  the 
son  of  Isaias,  and  Emmanuel,  born  of  the  root  of  Jesse,  inheriting 
the  throne  of  David  forever.  Nor  can  Calmet  maintain  that  Jesus' 
not  being  called  Emmanuel  favors  his  manner  of  interpretation. 
For  Jesus  does  not  on  that  account  become  equal  to  the  son  of  Isaias. 
Emmanuel,  applied  to  the  Messias,  shows  what  the  Messias  is,  while 
the  same  name  applied  to  the  son  of  the  prophet  only  indicates  the 
symbolical  meaning  of  the  child. 

b.  Drach  (1.  c.)  and  Marani  (De  divinitate  Christ!,  p.  36)  have 
therefore  endeavored  to  solve  the  difficulty  in  a  manner  different 
from  Calmet's  answer.  According  to  them  the  loth  verse  alone  is 
Messianic,  while  the  boy  of  whom  there  is  (juestion  in  the  following 
verse  is  Shear-Jasub,  the  son  of  the  prophet.  These  authors  admit 
that  the  prophet,  after  announcing  the  virginal  conception  and  birth 
of  Emmanuel,  after  predicting  his  eating  butter  and  honey  in  order 
to  show  that  he  is  a  man  like  ourselves,  suddenly  changed  his  atti- 
tude, and  pointing  with  his  hand  to  Shear-Jasub  uttered  the  predic- 
tion :  Before  that  boy  shall  attain  to  the  years  of  discretion,  the  land 
whose  two  kings  thou  fearest  shall  be  vacated  by  its  inlial)itants. 

They  urge  a  number  of  reasons  for  their  interpretation,  which 
are  answered  without  much  difficulty  :  (X.  Unless  this  explana- 
tion is  admitted,  there  is  no  reason  why  Isaias  should  have  been 
commanded  to  take  Shear-Jasub  with  him  to  Achaz.  But  the  very 
name  of  the  boy  was  a  sufficient  reason  for  this  command,  since  the 
name  of  both  father  and  son  served  as  a  symbolic  pro])liecy  to  the 
unhappy  king.  (i.  As  to  the  assertion  that  the  prophet  should  have 
used  the  word  "  child"  and  not  "boy,"  had  he  referred  in  the  16th 
verse  to  the  Emmanuel,  it  can  claim  only  an  apparent  probability. 
Its  fallacy  becomes  clear  as  soon  as  one  reflects  that  Emmanuel  at  the 
age  at  which  the  prophet  refers  to  him  is  no  more  a  child,  y.  The 
circumstance  that  Shear-Jasub  too  had  been  given  to  the  prophet 
for  a  sign  serves  only  to  confirm  what  we  said  above  ;  the  child's 
mere  presence  was  a  sign  to  the  king.  8.  The  last  reason  urged  by 
these  authors  in  favor  of  their  explanation  only  shows  the  weakness  of 
their  position.  For  though  prophets  may  and  do  make  sudden  tran- 
sitions from  subject  to  subject,  still  this  peculiarity  of  theirs  is  lim- 
ited to  type  and  antitype.  And  even  when  they  treat  of  matters  so 
intimately  related  to  each  other  as  type  and  antitype  are,  the  context 
commonly  shows,  at  least,  signs  of  the  transition.  In  the  present 
passage  of  Isaias  there  is  not  only  no  sign  of  such  a  transition,  but 
there  is  not  even  question  of  connected  subjects  ;  for  it  would  be 
difficult  to  prove  that  Shear-Jasub  is  a  type  of  Emmanuel,  e.  Besides 
all  this,  the  connection  of  the  16th  verse  with  what  precedes 
and  follows  is  so  close  that  it  hardly  admits  such  a  sudden 
transition  from  Emmanuel  to  Shear-Jasub.     In  fact  the  16th  verse 


'V)()  BIRTH  OF  TllK  MKSSIAS. 

you  are   grievous  to  my  (iod  also?     Tlierefore  tlie  Lord  Iiiiiiself 

begins  witli  the  causal   particle  "ki"(''3);  so  that  it  must  contain 

the  reason  of  the  j)recedin<jf  statement.  The  language  used  by  the 
prophet  forbids  the  belief  that  he  pointed  out  the  l)oy  of  whom  be 
spoke  ;  for  bad  be  done  so,  he  should  have  said  :  "  banna'ar  liazzeb," 
and  not  merely  "  banna'ar."  Finally,  in  the  22d  ver.se  it  appears 
that  Huiiiuiuucl  himself  is  in  some  way  suppos(nl  to  l)e  itrcscnt  in  the 
desolated  tciritory,  an<l  to  bi'  among  those  wiio  will  have  to  eat  butter 
and  honey  after  the  destruction  of  Aclia/,'  kingdom.  'l"he  suggesttul 
exi>lanatiou  would  therefore  leave  the  dilliculty  unanswered. 

f.  \'itringa  (Comment,  in  Is.  in  h.  1.;  Observat.  saene,  1.  v.)  and 
Patri/.i  have  suggested  another  solution  of  the  dilliculty.  According 
to  them  there  is  no  connection  between  vv.  15  and  22  ;  the  former 
tells  us  that  Kiiunanuel  will  iiuleed  eat  buttfr  ami  hom^y  as  a  sign  of 
his  true  hunumity,  but  that  his  years  of  discretion  constitutt^  only  an 
ideal  term  before  which  the  ]>r(Mlicted  liberation  will  takt;  ])lace,  since 
the  terminus  from  which  the  years  must  be  reckoned  is  not  the  real 
but  the  i<leal  birth  of  Emmanuel,  i  e.,  the  monu-nt  at  which  tin* 
propliecy  is  uttered.  It  is  true  that  the  ])rophet  clearly  distinguishes 
I  he  stati^l  two  periods  both  in  the  life  of  Achaz  and  in  that  of  10m- 
mauiu'l.  Tilt;  dilliculty  of  the  prophecy  consists  i)recisely  in  the 
pro|)het's  referring  the  distance  betwtuui  the  two  terms  in  both  cases 
to  tlie  same  period  of  time,  so  tliat  the  term  from  wlfndi  the  tinu;  up 
to  .\cha/.'  (hdivery  must  be  reckoned  coiiu-ides  with  thi-  conception 
and  birth  of  Kmnumuel,  while  tin;  tinm  of  the  actual  didivery  of 
Achaz  precedes  Kmuninuel's  ag<;  of  discretion,  \owtlns  jioint  is  not 
sutliciently  kept  in  view  in  tin;  solution  otTered  l)y  the  authors  men- 
tioned before.  Hesides,  their  assumption  that  vv.  15  aud  22  are  not 
connecrted  contradicts  the  testimony  of  the  text  itself. 

d  Ho.ssuet  (Kxi)lication  de  la  prophetic  d'Isaie,  vii.  14)  ]>roi>oses 
another  solution  of  the  (piestion.  According  to  him  the  jjrophet 
miutrh's  type  with  antitype  in  the  jiassage.  or  rather  be  mixes  the 
pait  whicli  refers  literally  to  tin;  .Messias  with  that  which  refers  to 
him  oidy  typically.  Literally,  the  .Messias  is  referred  to  oidy  in  the 
words;  "  lieiiold,  a  virgin  shall  conceive  and  bear  a  son,  and  bis 
ininu;  shall  be  called  Knnnanuel."  Everything  else  refers  literally  to 
Isaias"  son  iMaher-Shalal,  who  is  the  type  of  the  Messias.  The  transi- 
tion from  antityi)e  to  tyi>e  is  evident  from  the  ilivine  attributes  which 
are  predicated  of  the  former,  and  the  lunnan  characteristics  attributed 
to  the  latter.  Hut  there  are  certain  considerations  which  render 
Mossuet's  explanation  very  improbable,  a.  First,  it  is  hard  To  find 
out  any  similitudt;  between  .NIaher-Shalal  and  Enmumuel  in  those 
])recise  points  with  regard  to  which  the  former  must  be  the  type  of 
the  lattiT.  We  need  ni>t  reju-at  what  we  have  said  about  the  imj)os- 
sibility  of  the  virginal  coiu'eption  and  birth  of  Emmanutd  iieing  tyj)- 
ically  represented  liy  the  conception  and  ])irth  of  .MaherShnlal.  /i. 
Mesides,  it  seems  highly  imi>robable  that  isaias'  son  should  be  called 
by  two  dilTereiit  mimes  in  the  same  i)assage  ;  the  one  ai)plying  to  him 
in  his  historical  bearing,  tin;  other  representing  biiu  in  bis  typical 
capacity. 

e.   llengstenberg  in  his  Christology,  Knabenbauer  in  his  (.'omnu'n- 


THE   VIRGIN  MOTHER.  351 

shall  give  you  a  sign.     ■•  Behold,  a  virgin  shall  conceive,  and  bear 

tary  on  the  present  passage,  and  Corluy  (Spicil.  i.  p.  418)  prefer  an- 
other sohitiou  of  the  dilKculty.  a.  According  to  these  authors,  the 
])r()pbet  uses  in  the  present  passage  the  figure  of  vision  ;  he  sees  in 
his  i)roi)hetic  vision  Einnianuers  conception  and  birth  as  hajipening 
there  and  then.  The  years  of  Achaz"  delivery  from  his  enemies  are, 
therefore,  rightly  reckoned  from  the  moment  at  which  the  ])rediction 
is  uttered  or  from  the  birth  of  Enmianuel  ;  Emmanuel  is  rightly  rep- 
resented as  eating  butter  and  hcniey  with  his  afflicted  fellow-citizens  ; 
the  delivery,  finally,  takes  i)lace  before  Emmanuel  attains  to  the  use 
of  his  reason,  fi.  Such  a  vivid  description  we  meet  in  Is.  ix.  6,  where 
the  prophet  rei)resents  the  Emmanuel  as  already  born  ;  tlie  manner  of 
thus  identifying  the  Messias  with  the  actual  condition  of  his  people 
is  perfectly  legitimate,  since  all  the  salvation  of  Israel  was  derived 
from  the  merits  of  the  Messias.  y.  As  to  the  exception  which  may 
be  urged  against  this  explanation,  that  such  a  figure  could  not  have 
been  understood  by  Achaz  and  his  contemporaries,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  Israelites  were  by  other  ])rophecies,  uttered  about  the 
same  time  i.nd  by  th.e  same  prophet,  clearly  forewarned  that  the  Mes- 
sianic salvation  would  come  only  after  a  very  long  space  of  time.  In 
chapter  xi.,  e.g.,  there  is  question  of  the  root  giving  birth  to  the 
promised  Kedeemer,  and  in  the  same  chai)ter  (v.  12)  the  prophet  dis- 
tinctly announces  that  Israel  and  Juda  will  have  to  suffer  dispersion 
and  national  ruin  Ijefore  the  period  of  the  Messias. 

*•  Behold  a  virgin.  Explanations:  1.  The  virgin  is  no  definite  per- 
son at  all  :  according  to  Duhm,  mother  and  son  are  merely  represent- 
ative ideas  ;  according  to  Keuss  the  virgin  is  "  la  femme  conmie  telle  ;" 
according  to  Henry  Hammond  (1653),  pregnancy,  birth,  and  maturity 
are  in  their  primary  sense  only  parabolical  facts,  subservient  to  the 
chronological  measurement  of  time,  while  Lowth,  Koppe,  Uratz,  I. 
D.  Michaelis,  Eichhorn,  Paulus,  Staehelin,  Hensler,  Amnion,  etc., 
maintain  that  the  prophet's  words  are  merely  conditional,  meaning 
that  if  a  virgin  were  to  conceive  now,  and  bring  forth  a  child,  he 
would  attain  the  use  of  reason  only  after  the  land  would  be  freed 
from  its  two  j)owerful  enemies.  But  all  this  contradicts  the  positive 
statement  of  the  prophet,  which  admits  no  condition.  It  is  also  op- 
posed to  Is.  viii.  8,  which  demands  that  the  virgin  applies  to  a  definite 
person. 

2.  The  house  of  David  is  the  virgin,  and  her  son  is  a  future  new 
Israel  as  it  is  represented  in  Is.  liv.  4-7  (Hofmann,  Ebrard,  Kohler, 
Weir);  or  the  congregation  of  the  pious  and  of  the  God-fearing  in  Israel 
at  the  time  of  Achaz  is  the  virgin  who  will  bring  about  a  future  ref- 
ormation of  the  nation  (Schultz),  or  the  Church  is  the  virgin  who  will 
bring  forth  a  countless  number  of  children  to  Ciod  and  his  Kedeemer 
(Herveus ;  the  author  pro])oses  this  only  as  a  secondary  and  mystical 
meaning  of  the  prophecy,  after  he  has  explained  it  literally  of  the 
Messias).  But  not  to  menti(jn  other  inconveniences,  this  explanation 
is  o])posed  to  Is.  viii.  S,  lU  ;  ix.  6,  and  also  to  the  connnon  figurative 
manner  of  the  prophet's  address  to  the  people,  which  he  never  calls 
simply  "  virgin." 

3.  The  prophet  must,  therefore,  speak  of  a  definite  physical  person 


352  BIRTH  OF  THE  MKSSIAS. 

a  son,  and  his  name  sliall  be  called  Euimaniiel.     lie  shall  eat 

in  tlie  ]iresent  ])as.sage.  Some  of  the  ancient  Jewish  commentators 
who  are  mentioned  by  the  Fathers  (Justin,  cont.  Tryph.  nn.  (56,  08, 
71,  77;  C"yr  ,  I'roc  ,  Jerome)  understood  the  word  "  virj^in  "  as  ap- 
plyinij:  to  Achaz'  wife,  tlie  motlier  of  Ezecluas,  whom  tliey  identified 
with  Emmanuel.  This  view  is  clearly  refuted  by  Driver  (I.saias,  p. 
40).  Accordinj^  to  IV.  Kings  xvi.  2,  Achaz  on  ascending  the  throne 
was  twenty  years  old,  and  according  to  IV.  Kings  xviii.  2,  Ezechias 
was  twenty-five  years  old  on  his  ascending  the  throne.  Now,  accord- 
ing to  III.  Kings  xvi.  2,  Achaz  reigned  sixteen  years,  and  the  present 
])ro])hecy  was  uttered  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign.  Ezechias  was, 
tiicrerorts  nine  years  old  at  the  time  when  Isaias  uttered  the  prophecy. 
If  it  be  said  that  according  to  this  calculaticni  Achaz  died  at  the  age 
of  thirty-six,  and  that  he  therefore  was  only  eleven  years  older  than 
Ezechias,  who  ascended  tlie  throne  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  we 
answer  tliat  according  to  the  LXX.  and  the  Pesb.,  Achaz  was  twenty- 
five  on  ascending  the  throne,  so  that  he  died  at  the  age  of  forty-one, 
and  l)ecame  fatlier  of  Ezechias  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  But  this  does 
not  affect  the  fact  that  Ezechias  was  several  years  old  when  Lsaias 
announced  the  divine  sign  to  the  godless  Achaz. 

4.  Some  of  the  later  Jewish  commentators,  as  Abarbanel  and  Kim- 
chi,  are  of  opinion  that  the  virgin  refers  to  another  wife  of  Achaz, 
not  to  the  mother  of  Ezechias,  and  that  Emmanuel  is  a  son  of  Achaz 
who  is  unknown  in  history.  But  since  this  view  is  gratuitously  as- 
serted, it  may  be  denied  without  an  expre.ss  statement  of  the  reasons 
for  the  denial.  Besides,  it  is  extremely  im]>robable  that  a  common 
child,  who  was  to  have  no  special  natural  or  supernatural  preroga- 
tives, should  be  the  subject  of  Is.  viii.  8,  10  ;  ix.  0,  etc. 

5.  Another  class  of  authors  holds  that  the  virgin  of  the  prophecy  is 
the  wife  of  Isaias,  either  the  mother  of  Shear-Jasub,  or  a  younger 
wife,  newly  married  to  the  proi)het,  who  became  the  mother  of 
Maher-Shalal.  The  latter  is,  according  to  this  view,  the  Emmanuel 
of  the  prophecy  (Aben-Ezra,  Jarchi,  Faustus  Socinus,  Crell,  (Jrotius, 
von  Wolzogen,  Faber,  Ffldschke,  Uesenitis,  Ilitzig,  Hendewerk, 
Knobel,  Maurer,  Ol.shausen,  Die.stel,  etc.).  It  may  be  noted  that  cer- 
tain Catholic  authors  have  given  assent  to  this  o])inion.  applying, 
however,  only  the  literal  sen.se  of  virgin  and  Emmanuel  to  the 
])roi)het's  wife  and  son,  while  they  understand  both  in  tlieir  typical 
meaning  of  the  Messias  and  his  virgin  mother  (cf.  St.  Jerome's 
opinion  about  those  who  adhere  to  this  view),  a.  But  how  can 
we  conceive  Isaias  addressing  his  own  son  as  the  Lord  of  the  land  of 
Juda,  and  how  can  he  represent  his  .son  as  the  cause  of  Israel's  lil)er- 
ation  from  its  enemies  (is.  viii.  8,  10).'^  (i.  Again,  the  hypothesis 
that  the  prophecy  refers  t(j  a  wife  of  Isaias  recently  marrird  to  him 
is  nothing  but  a  makeshift,  resting  on  no  single  i>ositive  argument, 
while  tht!  assumption  that  Isaias  indicated  by  "  virgin"  the  mother 
of  Shear-Jasub  c(jntradicts  the  very  name  given  to  her.  For  what- 
ever meaning  may  be  assigned  to  the  Ilel)rew  word  "'almah,"  it  can 
surely  not  l)e  a])plied  to  a  married  woman  who  has  had  children. 

0.  Castalio,  l.senl>iehl  (formerly),  Bauer,  C'ul)e,  Steudel,Uml)reit  (for- 
merly), and  II.  Schultz  maintain  that  the  prophet  addressed  his  words 


THE   VIRGIN  MOTHER.  353 

butter  and  honey,  that  he  may  know  to  refuse  the  evil,  and  to 

to  a  virgin  who  happened  to  he  present  at  the  time  of  the  prophecy. 
Pointing  to  her,  Isaias  predicted  that  she  should  conceive  and  bear  a 
son,  and  that  the  country  should  be  freed  from  its  enemies  before 
her  son  would  reach  the  age  of  discretion,  a.  It  has  already  been 
shown  that  the  sign  thus  offered  can  in  no  way  satisfy  the  context  of 
the  prophecy,  fi.  Not  to  mention  that  the  authors  who  hold  this 
view  do  not  give  any  proof,  they  contradict  what  the  prophet  says 
concerning  the  Emmanuel  in  viii.  8,  10  ;  for  it  is  incredible  that  the 
lord  of  Judea  and  the  liberator  of  his  native  country  should  have  re- 
mained as  unknown  to  history  as  is  the  virgin's  son  of  whom  Lsaias  is 
supposed  to  prophesy  in  the  i)resent  passage. 

7.  If  this  be  true  of  the  explanation  according  to  which  any  immac- 
ulate virgin  and  her  son  are  the  subjects  of  the  prophet's  prediction, 
what  are  we  to  think  of  Niigelsbach's  opinion,  which  contends  that  a 
sinful  woman  and  a  child  born  of  sinful  intercourse  are  the  virgin 
and  the  P]mmanuel  of  whom  Isaias  speaks?  The  virgin  is  a  daughter 
of  Achaz,  who  has  conceived  secretly,  and  whose  sin  is  as  yet  un- 
known to  her  father.  Isaias  reveals  her  shame  to  her  father,  and  thus 
offers  him  a  divine  sign  of  his  supernatural  mission  and  of  Uod's 
faithfulness  to  his  promises.  The  incongruity  of  this  explanation  is 
so  clear  that  it  needs  no  further  refutation. 

8.  Finally,  the  commonly  received  opinion  of  Catholics  maintains 
that  the  "virgin"  in  Isaias'  prophecy  refers  to  the  Blessed  Virgin 
in  its  literal  sense,  and  that  Emmanuel  refers  in  its  literal  meaning 
to  Jesus  Christ.  The  text  of  the  prophecy,  its  context,  and  its  tradi- 
tional interpretation  render  this  explanation  certain  beyond  dispute. 

a.  The  text  of  the  passage  :  In  the  text  we  shall  first  consider  the 
word  "virgin,"  Heb.  ""almah";  secondly,  we  shall  say  a  word  about 
the  clause  in  which  the  word  "  virgin  "  occurs.  1.  As  to  "  'almah," 
whatever  etymological  derivation  we  give  for  the  word  (obs',    cb;' 

biy),  in  any  case  it  may  signify  a  chaste  virgin,  so  far  as  its  deriva- 
tion is  concerned.  Now  the  Scriptural  usage  of  the  word  determines 
that,  in  point  of  fact,  "'almah"  does  mean  "virgin."  For  it  occurs 
only  six  times  in  the  Old  Testament  outside  of  the  present  passage  ; 
in  Gen.  xxiv.  43  it  is  applied  to  Kebecca,  who  is  expressly  called  a 
virgin  who  had  not  known  man  (Gen.  xxiv.  16) ;  Ex.  ii.  8  applies 
'almah  to  the  sister  of  Moses,  who  was  only  a  little  girl  ;  Ps.  Ixvii. 
(Ixviii.)  26  reads  "princes  went  before  joined  with  singers,  in  the 
midst  of  young  damsels  playing  on  timbrels."  Now  we  infer  from 
Jer.  xxxi.  4  ;  Judges  xi.  84 ;  Ex.  xv.  20  that  the  damsels  employed  in 
this  office  were  commonly  virgins.  Cant.  i.  3  uses  the  word  of  virgins 
who  love  their  royal  spouse  where  no  meaning  but  that  of  pure  virgins 
can  be  thought  of.  Cant.  vi.  8  (Vugl.  7)  has  the  passage:  "There  are 
three  score  queens,  and  four  score  concubines,  and  young  maidens 
without  number."  Here  again,  it  is  clear  that  the  young  maidens 
indicated  in  the  Hebrew  text  by  the  plural  of  'almah  must  be  pure 
virgins,  since  they  are  distinguished  from  queens  on  the  one  hand, 
and  from  concubines  on  the  other.  The  sixth  passage  in  which 
"'almah"  occurs  offers  greater  difficulties.  It  reads:  "  Three  things 
are  hard  to  me,  and  the  fourth  I  am  utterly  ignorant  of  :  the  way 


354  BIRTH  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

choose  the  good.     For  Ix'foro  tlio  child  know  to  refuse  the  evil, 

(if  an  fiififlii  in  thi^  air,  \\w  way  of  a  s<'r])t'nt  n]>()M  a  rock,  the  way  of 
u  ship  in  liii;  midst  of  tlie  sea,  and  tiu^  way  of  a  man  in  youth  "  (Frov. 
xxx.  l.S,  1!)|.  Tlic  word  rendered  "youth"  reads  in  tht^  Hel)rew 
t«'xt  "  'almali,"  so  that  we  sliould  read  "tlie  way  of  a  nuin  in  a  viririn." 
Unly  one  Hebrew  codex  lias  tlie  reading  "'aimutli"  tliat  is  re(|uiit'd 
hy  the  jjresent  Kn^lish,  i^atin,  Se])tuaf;int,  and  Syriait  renderinj^ 
"youtli  ;"  all  the  otlier  cotlices  and  old  versi(jns  recjuire  the  renderiuj^ 
'•  virgin." 

A  number  of  exjilanations  of  this  dillicult  passage  have  been  oiTi-ri'd, 
which  we  can  oidy  enumerate  witiiout  full\  investigatinji^  any  one  of 
them. 

a.  The  "virgin"  sjjoken  of  is  a  prostitute,  so  that  the  whole  ])as- 
sage  means  :  as  there  is  no  sign  left  of  the  eagle's  way  in  the  air,  of 
the  serjK'nt's  i)ath  on  the  rock,  and  of  the  ship's  course  in  tlu^  watiTs 
of  the  sea,  so  there  is  no  certain  sign  of  a  man's  intercourse  with  a 
prostitute.  1.  Hut  in  the  first  i)lace,  the  subsecjuent  pregnancy  would 
serve  as  such  a  sign.  3.  Again,  this  meaning  does  not  jigret-  with  tin; 
viTse  which  innnediately  follows  the  ])assage  :  "  Such  is  also  the  way 
of  an  adulterous  woman,  who  eatcth,  and  wipcth  her  mouth,  and 
sailh:  I  have  done  no  evil."  Kor  what  iniaginaliie  "way"  of  the? 
adulterous  woman  can  thus  be  compared  with  the  way  of  the  eagle, 
the  serpent,  the  ship,  and  tlie  man'^ 

(i.  A  second  explanation  admits  that  " 'almah  "  in  the  i>assage  nuiy 
mean  a  "virgin"  who  is  innuaculate  before  her  intercourse  with  man. 
This  view  sup])oses  that  man's  way  in  tlii^  virgin  is  hidden  because 
it  cannot  be  discovered  on  the  man  himself.  1.  Hut  in  the  first  place, 
tliis  explanation  is  against  the  analogy  of  the  ])receding  three  un- 
known ways:  they  are  called  nnknown,  not  becaust^  they  cannot  be 
detected  on  the  eagle,  or  the  ship,  or  the  si-rpent.but  because  they  can- 
not be  discovered  in  tlie  air,  in  the  sea,  and  on  tlu^  rock.  In  the  same 
manner,  then,  must  the  fourth  way  be  undiscoverable  on  the  virgin. 
2.  Hesides,  the  same  argument  may  be  urged  against  this  explanation 
which  we  urged  against  the  tir.st  solution,  and  which  was  taken  from 
the  im])ossibility  of  finding  an  analogous  "way"  of  the  adulterous 
woman. 

y.  Others  again  have  thought  of  ex])laining  the  i)assage  in  a  meta 
jihorical  sense  ;  tln^  Wise  Man  says,  a<'cording  to  tins  view:  1  do  not 
kn<)w  h(jw  the  mighty  eagle  can  sail  through  the  thin  air  ;  I  do  not 
know  liow  the  serpent  without  feet  can  glide  over  tlu;  solid  rock;  I 
do  not  know  how  the  i)ulky  ship  can  bi'  upheld  in  the  litpiid  waters 
of  the  ocean  ;  1  (h)  not  know  how  the  libertine  can  be  im])elliMl  by  his 
im])Ure  jiassion  to  corru])t  tlie  imnuiculate  virgin:  an<l  in  the  same 
manner  the  deceitful  way  of  the  adulterous  wouum  is  a  mystery  to 
me.  It  is  clear  that  according  to  this  explanation  all  tlu'  necessary 
conditions  of  both  text  and  context  are  fully  satisfied. 

6.  'I'here  is  another  explanation  which  seems  more  satisfactory  to 
some  scholars,  becau.s(Mt  does  not  ai)peal  to  a  meta])horical  meaning 
of  the  word  "  way."  The'almah  issupi>osed  to  be  a  chast«'  virgin, — 
at  least  in  the  estinuition  of  men,  — and  the  writer  insists  on  the  fa<-t 
that  even  in  a  virgin  there  is  uo  certain  sign  of  her  intercourse  with 


THE  VIRGIN  MOTHER.  355 

and  to  choose  the  good,  the  land  which  thou  abhorrest  shall  be 

man.  As,  therefore,  an  adulterous  woman  may  eat  and  wipe  her 
mouth  and  say,  "  I  have  done  no  evil,"  so  may  a  rei)uted  virgin,  even 
after  her  sin,  be  without  any  outward  signs  of  her  violated  virginity 
(ef.  Knal>.  p.  170). 

€.  We  hardly  need  to  state  all  the  other  explanations  that  have 
been  attem])ted  l)y  divers  authors:  llohling,  eg.,  proffers  the  view 
that  the  writer  merely  warns  virgins  against  illicit  intercourse,  since 
tliey  alone  have  to  bear  the  i)unishment  and  the  shame,  while 
their  accomplices  retain  no  trace  of  the  sin  ;  Hengstenberg  exjilains 
the  "way"  of  man  in  the  virgin  as  meaning  the  curious  man- 
ner in  which  a  virgin  often  conceives  a  passion  for  a  man  without 
any  assignable  reasonable  cause  ;  Lajjide  mentions  the  opinion  of 
some  that  the  writer  addresses  a  warning  to  parents  to  keep  their 
daughters  well  guarded  from  all  attempts  against  their  virginity, 
since  there  is  no  external  sign  to  show  them  whether  a  fault  has  been 
committed. 

It  follows  from  these  explanations  that  in  order  to  satisfy  both  text 
and  context  of  the  difficult  i)assage,  "'almah  "  must  signify  a  pure  vir- 
gin— a  virgin  who  is  pure,  at  least,  in  the  opinion  of  men.  And  com- 
bining this  result  with  the  result  of  our  investigation  of  the  other 
l)assages  in  which  "'almah"  occurs,  we  must  conclude  that  the  word 
commonly  means  a  ])ure  and  undetiled  virgin. 

This  conclusion  is  confirmed  by  the  LXX.  version,  in  which  'almah  is 
four  times  rendered  veavi?,  or  maid  (Ex.  ii.  8  ;  Ps.  Ixvii.  (Ixviii.)  26  ; 
Cant.  i.  3  ;  vi.  7),  once  reorrji  (Prov.  xxx.  19),  but  in  the  present 
passage  TtafjBei'o?,  or  virgin.  There  must,  then,  have  been  a  special 
reason,  be  it  tradition  or  the  current  exi>lanation  of  the  text,  which 
induced  those  writers  to  adojit  this  version.  It  is  not  surprising  that 
Aquila,  Symmachus,  and  Theodotion  relincjuished  the  rendering 
Ttap^evoS,  because  at  their  time  the  Christians  already  began  to  use 
the  text  in  their  controversial  writings  (cf.  Iren.  iii.  24  ;  Justin, 
Tryph.   71). 

3.  It  must  further  be  noted  that 'almah  in  the  Hebrew  te.xt  has  the 
definite  article,  and  that  it  is  followed  by  two  participles,  so  that  we 
must  render  literally:  "  Behold,  the  virgin  is  pregnant,  and  is  bring- 
ing f(n'tli  a  son,  and  his  name  she  shall  call  Emmanuel."  If  we  then 
insist  on  the  literal  meaning  of  the  prophecy,  the  virgin,  though 
she  is  virgin,  is  ])regnant  and  bringing  forth  her  son,  so  that  she  is 
both  virgin  and  mother.  It  ai)pears  from  the  following  verb  that  the 
])rophet  intended  his  words  to  l)e  explained  in  this  literal  .sense;  for 
he  does  not  say  "  and  she  is  calling  his  name  Emmanuel,"  but  he 
continues,  "and  she  shall  call  his  name."  The  prophecy  in  its  lit- 
eral meaning  has,  therefore,  not  been  verified  in  any  one  except  in 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  so  that  she  alone  is  literally  spoken  of  by  Isaias. 
Drach  (De  I'harmonie  entre  rEglise  et  la  Synagogiie,  Paris,  1844,  t.  ii 
l)p.  2i37  ff.)  has  shown  that  it  is  i)robal)ly  owing  to  Isaias'  prophecy 
concerning  the  virgin-mother  that  virginity  has  been  held  in  such 
high  esteem  among  most  nations  of  even  pagan  anti(iuity. 

b.  The  context  of  this  passage  too  retpiires  that  it  be  api)lied  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  in  its  literal  sense.     For,  accoi'ding  to  the  context,  the 


366  BIRTH  OF  THE  MESS  J  AS. 

forsaken  of  the  face  of  her  two  kings.  The  Lord  shall  bring  upon 
thee  and  upon  thy  people,  and  upon  the  liouse  of  thy  fatiier,  days 
that  have  not  come  sitice  the  time  of  the  sei)aratiou  of  Ephraim 
from  Juda,  with  the  king  of  the  Assyrians." 

Corollaries. 

1.  The  prophet's  prediction  that  the  Messias  will  be 
conceived  and  born  of  a  virgin  who  has  not  known  man, 
tliat  his  name  will  be  Emmanuel,  and  tluit  he  will  be  the 
Kedeemer  of  his  people,  is  for  Christians  certain  from  the 
te.xt  of  St.  Matthew. 

2.  Against  Rationalists  the  Messianic  character  of  the 
jiropiiecy  may  be  proved  from  the  connection  of  chapters 
vii,,  viii.,  ix.,  xi.,  and  Mich.  v.  The  unanimous  Jewish  tra- 
dition regarding  Is.  viii.  8  and  Mich.  v.  5,  and  the  fact  that 
St.  Matthew  used  the  prophecy  against  the  Jews  in  a  Mes- 
sianic sense  without  finding  any  contradiction  on  the  part 
of  his  opponents,  are  as  many  confirmations  of  the  first 
argument  for  the  Messianic  reference  of  Is.  vii. 

The  virginal  conception  and  birth  of  the  Emmanuel  can 
be  rendered  probable  to  a  Rationalist  even  from  Isaias' 
prophecy:  a.  Because  the  LXX.  rendered  the  word 
'•'almah"  hy  "napdevo^ ^"  h.  because  St.  Matthew  found 
no  difficulty  when  he  saw  a  fulfilment  of  this  prophecy  in 
Clirist's  virginal  conception;  c.  because  it  has  been  the 
universal  tradition  among  the  nations  that  many  of  their 
divine  heroes  and  many  of  their  extraordinary  men  were 
born  of  virgin-mothers, 

3.  As  to  the  Jews,  they  could  infer  the  Messianic  char- 
acter of  Isaias'  prophecy  by  comjiaring  it  with  other  clearly 
Messianic  predictions.     From  the  latter  they   knew  that 

virgin  of  whom  the  pro])lit,'t  s])('aks  is  tlio  mother  of  Emninnuel. 
Now,  Emmamiol  must  from  the  whole  setting  of  the  ])redirtion  be 
literally  applied  to  Jesus  Christ.  Hence  the  virgin  mother  too  must 
be  the  Messias'  mother  in  the  literal  meaning  of  tlie  word. 

c.  Nearly  all  the  patristic  testimonies  to  which  we  referred  above, 
as  ai)i)lying  l.saias'  i>ro|)liecy  to  the  Messias,  bear  also  witness  to  its 
literal  Messianic  application. 


THE    VIROIN  MOTHER.  357 

the  Messias  would  free  the  house  of  David  from  its  enemies, 
though  they  might  not  believe  him  so  far  distant  as  he 
really  proved  to  be.  It  is  hardly  probable  that  they  should 
have  understood  from  the  words  of  the  prophecy  the  vir- 
ginal conception  and  birth  of  the  Messias,  though  they 
must  have  perceived  that  the  Messias'  mother  would  be  a 
most  extraordinary  virgin,  and  perhaps  even  that  she  must 
be  especially  privileged  in  her  conceiving  and  giving  birth 
to  the  Messias.  The  Alexandrian  translators  seem  to  have 
had  a  further  developed  doctrine  on  the  virginity  of  Em- 
manuel's mother.  And  we  may  reasonably  suppose  that 
about  the  time  of  Christ's  birth  the  Messianic  expectation 
had  attained  such  a  state  of  perfection  that  the  Evange- 
list's doctrine  was  for  the  new  converts  nothing  else  than  a 
clear  exposition  of  what  they  had  known  implicitly  and 
obscurely. 


358  BIllTII  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE   PllECURSOIl   OF  THE  MESSIAS. 
Section  I.    The  Voice  in  the  Desert. 

Is.  xl.  1-11. 

Introduction. 
1.  Connection  of  the  Prophecy  with  the  Prophetic 

Series  of  IsAIAS. — 'J'lie  prupliucy  l)eloii<,^s  to  tlie  second 
])urt  of  Isuiiis'  book,  Avhicli  begins  with  c.  xl.  and  ends  with 
c.  Ixvi.  It  may  be  called  "  the  Hook  of  Consolation,"  since 
the  very  opening  words  give  us  the  key-note  of  the  whole 
second  part.  It  consists  of  three  divisions,  eacli  of  which 
embraces  nine  cantos.  The  general  subject  of  the  single 
divisions  is  indicated  in  xl.  3,  according  to  which  chapters 
xl.-xlviii.  evolve  the  idea,  "her  evil  is  come  to  an  end;" 
chapters  xlix.-lvii.  inculcate  the  thought,  "  her  iniquity  is 
forgiven;"  chapters  Iviii. -Ixvi. ,  linally,  describe  how  ''she 
hath  received  of  the  liand  of  the  Lord  double  for  all  her 
sins."  The  style  of  the  whole  second  part  is  even  and 
Hiajestic,  except  in  liii.  and  Ivi.  9-lvii.,  where  the  sadness 
and  the  anger  which  the  prophet  rej)resents  affect  his  style 
and  conform  it  to  his  subject-matter. 

The  present  prophecy  belongs  to  the  first  of  tlie  three 
divisions,  forming  })art  of  its  Introduction;  for  the  whole 
Introduction  to  the  first  division  extends  throughout  the 
40th  chapter.  A  careful  ri'ading  sliows  that  the  Introduc- 
tion consists  of  two  ])arts,  one  of  which  we  may  call  the 
general  introduction,  contained  in  vv.  1  11;  the  other 
may   be   named    the   s[(ccial    iMti-odurtion,  exti'nding  from 


THE  riiECURSOR   OF  THE  MESSIAS.  859 

vv.  12-31.  It  is  clear  from  this  tliat  the  present  prophecy 
coincdies  Avith  the  general  introduction. 

2.  The  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecy. — The 
liberty  promised  in  the  prophet's  prediction  is  neither 
solely  temjioral  nor  solely  spiritual.  The  solely  Messianic 
reference  of  the  prophecy  is  defended  by  Ephrem,  Jerome, 
Cyril,  Eusebius,  Thomas,  Osorio,  Foreiro,  Pinto,  Sasbout, 
Lapide,  Menochius,  Gordon,  Maldonatus.  Tirinus  also 
denies  that  the  prediction  in  its  literal  sense  refers  to  the 
liberation  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonian  cajitivity; 
still  he  grants  that  it  alludes  to  this  fact.  Mariana,  Cal- 
met,  Neteler,  Eohling,  Trochon,  aiid  Kuabenbauer  have 
thought  it  right  to  differ  with  the  former  authors;  for 
they  refer  the  literal  sense  of  Is.  xl.  1-11  to  the  liberation 
of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonian  captivity,  while  they 
apply  it  ill  its  typical  sense  to  the  Messianic  salvation  and 
to  St.  John  the  Baptist. 

It  is  clear  from  the  preceding  and  the  subsequent  chap- 
ters that  the  40th  chapter  must  literally  refer  to  the  Jewish 
liberation  froni  the  Babylonian  captivity.  For  such  an 
announcement  is  naturally  expected  after  chapter  xxxix., 
and  in  the  subsequent  chapters  the  same  event  is  literally 
described  as  coming  to  2)ass  through  the  instrumentality  of 
Cyrus.  At  the  same  time  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the 
prediction  has  also  a  Messianic  application :  a.  This  is 
plain  from  the  greatness  of  the  promises  in  verse  5,  "  and 
the  glory  of  the  Lord  shall  be  revealed,  and  all  flesh 
together  shall  see  that  the  mouth  of  the  Lord  hath  spoken." 
b.  The  same  truth  appears  from  the  New  Testament,  in 
which  the  prediction  of  Isaias  is  applied  to  John  the  Bap- 
tist: "For  this  is  he  that  was  spoken  of  by  Isaias  the 
prophet,  saying:  A  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  desert;  pre- 
pare ye  the  way  of  the  Lord,  make  straight  his  paths " 
(Matt.  iii.  3).  Similar  testimonies  are  found  in  Mark  i.  3, 
4;  Luke  iii.  4;  John  i.  23.  c.  We  have  seen  that  in  its 
literal  sense  the  prophecy  refers  to  the  Jewish  deliverance 
from  the  Babylonian   captivity.     Now  this  event  is  com- 


360  'BIRTII  OF  THE  MBS8IAS. 

monly  represented  in  Sacred  Scripture  as  a  type  of  Mes- 
sianic salvation  (cf.  Os.  ii.  15;  Mich.  ii.  12,  13;  Jer.  xxxi. 
21  f.;  Ezech.  xxxvi.  9;  xxxvii.  11  ff.).  Consequently,  the 
prediction  is  Messianic  from  the  very  nature  of  its  object. 
(I.  We  miiijht  add  to  these  arguments  the  weight  of  extrin- 
sic authority,  but  the  names  of  the  writers  who  regard  the 
passage  as  Messianic,  either  in  its  literal  or  in  its  typical 
sense,  have  been  given  above. 

e.  Rabbinic  tradition  too  regards  the  prophetic  passage 
as  Messianic.  The  Midrasli  on  Gen.  1.  21,  sect,  100,  has  it: 
"  If  the  word  of  Joseph  had  such  a  soothing  effect  upon 
the  hearts  of  the  tribes,  how  much  greater  will  be  the  effect 
when  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  will  come  to  comfort 
Jerusalem,  as  it  is  said:  Be  comforted,  be  comforted,  my 
people.  .  .  ."  (Is.  xl.  1).  The  Midrash  on  Leviticus  xli.  (i. 
1,  sect.  1)  has  a  Messianic  application  of  Is.  xl.  5:  "Rabbi 
Phiiiehas  spoke,  in  the  name  of  Rabbi  Iloshaya,  this  para- 
ble: A  king  showed  himself  to  the  son  of  his  house  in  his 
true  likeness;  for  in  this  world  the  Shechinah  appears  to 
individuals,  but  in  the  future  the  glory  of  the  Lord  will 
appear,  as  it  is  said :  And  the  glory  of  the  Lord  shall  be 
revealed.  .  .  ."  Yalkut  on  Ex.  xxxii.  6  applies  Is.  xl.  10 
in  a  Messianic  sense:  "And  on  account  of  the  sufferings 
which  Israel  suffered  will  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 
give  them  a  double  reward  in  the  days  of  the  Messias,  for 
it  is  said :  Ik'hold.  the  Lord  (Jod  will  come.  .  .  ." 

3.  The  Tropological  Sense  of  tlie  passage  is  so  well 
known  and  so  frequently  used  that  we  need  not  delay  over 
its  explanation  (cf.  Lap.,  Cyril,  Gordon,  Sanchez,  etc.). 

Is.  XL.  1-11. 

'  Be  comforted,  bo  comfortod,  my  people,  saith  your  God.  Speak 
ye  to  the  heart  of  Jerusalem,  and  call  to  her:  for  her  evil  is  couu^ 

'  Be  comforted.  The  whole  passage  may  be  dividi'd  into  fivil 
parts:  1.  In  vv.  1,  2  the  proithet  dcscrilK-s  the  rcdemiition  in  a  negj 
utive  way  ;  2.  vv.  3,  4,  5  the  first  herald  describes  the  redeniptioij 
p()isitively  ;    3.  vv.  6-y    the    second   herald   shows  that   no   create(j 


THE  PRECURSOR  OF  THE  MESSIAS.  H61 

to  an  end,  her  iniquity  is  forgiven,  she  hath  received  of  the  hand 
of  the  Lord  double  for  all  her  sins. 

"  The  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  desert:  Prepare  ye  the  way  of 
the  Lord,  make  straight  in  the  wilderness  the  paths  of  our  God. 

obstacle  can  frustrate  the  promised  redemption  ;  4.  v.  9  the  third 
herald  supposes  God's  presence  ;  5.  vv.  10-11  the  prophet  takes  up 
the  strain  of  the  third  herald,  describing  the  work  of  redemption 
more  minutely.  "  Be  comforted  "  contains  the  burden  of  the  divin(? 
commission  intrusted  to  the  prophet.  This  commission  is  not  given 
once,  and  then  left  to  the  good-will  of  the  prophet,  but  God  gives  it 
continuously  ;  hence  ' '  saith  the  Lord. "  These  good  tidings  are  to 
be  spoken  to  the  heart  of  Jerusalem,  i.e.,  according  to  the  scriptural 
manner  of  expression,  to  the  sorrowing  Jerusalem.  Finally,  three 
reasons  are  assigned  why  the  sorrowing  city  should  be  consoled  :  1. 
Her  evil,  or  rather  her  warfare,  is  come  to  an  end  (cf.  Knabenb. ,  in 
Is.  i.  62) ;  2.  her  iniquity  is  forgiven,  or  better,  her  ransom  has  been 
paid  (cf.  ibid.  61,  62)  ;  3.  she  hath  received  of  the  hand  of  the  Lord 
double  for  all  her  sins.  This  sentence  has  been  taken  in  a  double 
sense  :  a.  Jerusalem  has  suffered  enough  to  satisfy  the  divine  justice, 
so  that  God's  compassion  now  regards  what  his  justice  was  forced  to 
inflict  on  Jerusalem  as  superabundant.  The  turning-point  from 
anger  to  love  has  come,  and  the  latter  will  break  forth  the  more  in- 
tensely the  longer  it  has  been  pent  up  (Delitzsch,  ii.  134  f.).  Some 
see  in  the  double  punishment  the  double  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
(Jerome,  Euseb.,  Maid.,  Est),  b.  Other  interpreters,  however,  apply 
the  "double"  not  to  the  punishment  of  Jerusalem,  which  even  God's 
justice  could  not  inflict,  but  they  understand  it  of  double  grace  which 
the  city  is  to  receive  (Pinto,  Vatable,  Mariana,  Sa,  Clarius,  Sasbout, 
Lapide,  Gesenius,  Hitzig,  Ewald,  Hahn,  Knabenbafler,  Umbreit, 
Stier,  etc.).  The  exception  of  Delitzsch,  that  the  tense  "  she  hath 
received  "  must  be  taken  of  past  time,  since  the  parallel  tenses  "is 
come  to  an  end  "  and  "  is  forgiven  "  are  taken  of  the  past,  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  render  this  view  improbable.  For  the  prophet  has  seen  Jeru- 
salem's future  before  him,  and  he  here  describes  it  as  he  has  seen 
it,  not  determining  whether  what  he  announces  is  still  to  come  or  has 
taken  place  already. 

*  The  voice  of  one  crying.  Whether  we  follow  our  English  and 
Latin  versions,  or  render  with  Sanchez,  Malvenda,  Maldonatus  (in 
Matt.  iii.  3)  :  "  The  voice  of  one  crying  :  In  the  desert  prepare  .  .  .  ," 
in  either  case  the  words  allude  to  the  oriental  custom  of  preparing 
the  road  before  an  important  person  who  journeys  through  the  coun- 
try. A  herald  is  sent  to  inform  the  people  of  this  duty.  The  prophet 
therefore  shows  that  the  Lord  himself  will  be  the  guide  of  Israel  on 
its  return  from  Babylon,  even  as  he  had  led  the  people  on  the  way 
through  the  desert  when  it  left  the  Egyptian  captivity.  As  to  the 
real  nature  of  the  road,  cf.  Is.  xli.  18  ;  xliii.  20  ;  Hi.  11  ;  Iv.  12  ;  Ivii. 
14  ;  Ixii.  10.  The  nature  of  the  ])reparation  is  minutely  described  in 
the  following  words,  which  contain  at  the  same  time  the  end  of  the 
work,  "  the  glory  of  the  Lord  shall  be  revealed."  But  since  in  the 
following  chapters  a  twofold  redemption  is  described,  that  through 


:^62  lilllTII   OF   TlIK   }fh'SS/AS. 

Every  valley  shall  l>e  exalted,  and  every  inomitain  and  hill  shall 
be  made  low,  and  the  crookt^d  shall  boeoinc  straight,  and  the  rough 
ways  plain.  And  the  glory  of  the  Lord  shall  be  revealed,  and  all 
llesh  together  shall  see  that  the  mouth  of  the  Lord  hath  spoken. 

'The  voiee  of  one  saying  :  Cry.  And  I  said:  What  shall  I  cry  ? 
All  Hesh  is  grass,  and  all  the  glory  thereof  as  the  flower  of  the 
field.  The  grass  is  withered  and  the?  flower  is  fallen,  because  tiie 
.spirit  of  the  Lord  hath  l)lown  u])()n  it.  Indeed  the  people  is  grass: 
the  grass  is  withered,  and  the  flower  is  falltin,  but  the  word  of  our 
Lord  endureth  for  ever. 

*Get  thee  up  upon  a  high  mountain,  thou  that  bringest  good 
tidings  to  Sion,  lift  up  thy  voice  with  strength,  thou  that  bringe-st 
good  tidings  to  Jeru.salem;  lift  it  up,  fear  not.  Say  to  the  cities 
of  -Iiida  :  Behold  your  God. 

'Hehold,  tlie  Lord  (Jod  shall  come  with  strength,  and  his  arm 

Cyrus  an<l  that  tliri)iigli  the  Messias,  so  the  jircparation  liore  enjoined 
must  be  understood  as  referring  to  both.  It  is  clear,  tlierefore,  that 
what  literally  applies  to  the  desert-roads  refers  also  to  tiie  prepara- 
tion of  our  hearts  for  the  Messianic  blessings.  Tliecall  itself  sounds 
like  tlie  longdrawn  trumpet-blast  of  a  herald  (cf.  xvi.  1). 

^  The  voice  of  one  saying:  Cry.  .\cconling  to  the  LXX.  and  St. 
Jerome,  we  continue  :  "  .Vnd  I  said  ;"  according  to  the  Hebrew  text, 
the  Syriac  a?ul  the  ("luddee  versions,  the  text  continues  :  "  And  he 
said."  After  the  preceding  promise  of  Israiel's  exaltation  the  projdiet 
might  doubt  as  to  the  ])ossil)ility  of  such  a  change  in  the  nation's 
condition.  (Jod  therefore  sends  his  second  herald  to  announce  three 
jHiints  :  <i.  all  flesh  and  all  its  glory  is  ))erisliable  as  the  Hower  of 
the  field  ;  h.  all  flesh  and  ail  its  glory  shall  really  perish  ;  r.  but  the 
word  of  the  Lord  shall  stand  for  ever.  The  outward  numifestation 
of  (iods  breath  seems  to  be  the  wind,  and  in  our  case  the  sirocco,  at 
whost^  blowing  in  May  the  spring  flora  accjuires  at  once  an  autumn 
look. 

*Get  thee  up.  It  is  disputed  whether  Sion  is  the  third  herald,  or 
whether  Sion  is  the  one  to  whom  the  third  herald  announces  the 
glad  tiilings.  Sion  is  considered  the  herald  <if  glad  tidings  by 
Osorio,  \'atable,  Saslxiut,  Maldonatus,  Mariana,  I'oreiro.  Hohling, 
Trocdion.  On-lli,  Delitzsch,  and  other  authors,  while  Sanclie/,  Calmet, 
Schegj,'-,  (iesenius,  Knobel,  llahn,  i\nabenbauer,  and  others  at,''ree 
with  the  LXX.  and  the  Targumim.  rendering  the  clause  :  "  preacher 
of. salvation  to  .lerusalem."  According  to  the  fornuT  view,  .lerusa- 
leui  is  to  ascenti  a  high  mountain  after  (toil  has  returned  to  the  city, 
and  ainioiini-e  to  Sion's  daughters,  i.<'. ,  to  the  surrounding  cities,  the 
^'ladsome  news  of  the  divine  deliverance.  According  to  the  latter 
interpretation  Sion  is  looked  upon  as  in  the  greatest  grief,  and  the 
heraUl  must  console  Sion  with  the  gla<l  tidin^rs  of  (iod's  return  to  tlie 
temple.  The  herald  is  expressed  by  the  feminine  ^render,  in  order  to 
sif^nify  that  it  applies  to  jill  wlio  nuiy  come  to  .lerusalem. 

^Behold,  the  Lord  God  shall  eome  with  strength.      In  the  following 


TUE  PRECURSOR   OF  THE  MESSIA8.  363 

shall  rule;  behold,  his  reward  is  witli  him,  and  his  work  is  before 
him.  He  shall  feed  his  Hock  like  a  shepherd,  he  shall  gather 
together  the  lambs  with  his  arm,  and  shall  take  them  u})  in  his 
bosom,  and  he  himself  shall  carry  them  that  are  with  young. 

Corollary. 

The  Jews  could  suspect  the  Messianic  character  of  this 
prophecy,  because  they  seem  to  have  known  the  typical 
character  of  their  return  from  Babylon.  The  general 
description  of  the  Messianic  preparation  is  more  minutely 
described  in  the  prophecy  of  Malachias. 


Section  II.  Ellas  the  Prophet. 

Mai.  iv.  5,  6. 

Introductioist. 

1.  Connection  of  the  Prophecy  with  its  Context. 

The  people  complain  that  it  is  vain  to  serve  God,  that  he 
makes  no  distinction  between  the  evil  and  the  good.  The 
prophet  replies  that  tlie  day  is  coming  when  God  will  own 
those  that  are  his  and  silence  the  murmurers  (iii.  13-18). 
The  workers  of  wickedness  will  be  punished,  and  the  just 
will  triumph  over  their  fall  (iv.  1-3).  The  prophecy  con- 
cludes with  an  exhortation  to  obey  the  requirements  of  the 
Mosaic  law,  and  with  a  promise  of  a  coming  of  Elias  the 
prophet  to  move  the  people  to  repentance  for  the  day  of 
the  Lord,  and  thus  to  avert  or  mitigate  the  curse  that 
otherwise  must  fall  upon  the  earth  (iv.  4-6). 

2.  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecy. — All  grant 
that  the  promised  Elias  will  prepare  the  day  of  the  Lord. 

verses  the  prophet  takes  u])  the  tidings  of  the  third  herald,  and  es- 
pecially the  words:  "Behold  your  CJod."  (tod  will  l)ring  his  own 
work  to  a  successful  issue  ;  he  will  reward  the  deserving  and  chastise 
the  wicked.  This  twofold  nature  of  (Jod's  work  is  described  repeat- 
edly in  Isaias  ;  cf.  viii.  21;  ix.  1;  xxiv.  6,  10;  xxx.  23,  27,  etc. 
Finally,  Isaias  returns  to  a  more  detailed  description  of  (iod's  mercy, 
representing  him  as  a  laitliful  and  loving  shepherd  who  cares  for 
every  want  of  his  tlock. 


364  BIRTH  OF  THE  MKSSIAS. 

liut  it  is  disputed  wliich  d.iy  of  the  Lord  is  meant  in  the 
})resent  passage.  A  number  of  autliors  maintain  that  the 
tirst  advent  of  the  Messias  is  called  the  day  of  the  Lord 
in  this  prophecy.  'JMie  reasons  for  this  opinion  may  be 
reduced  to  the  following:  a.  The  angel  foretells  of  John  the 
Bai)tist:  "And  he  shall  go  before  him  in  the  spirit  and 
power  of  Elias  .  .  ."  (Luke  i.  17).  Now  John  the  Baptist 
went  before  the  Lord  at  his  first  advent.  Besides,  when 
Jesus  spoke  to  the  assembled  multitude  about  John  the 
Baptist,  he  said  expressly:  "And  if  ye  will  receive  it,  he  is 
Elias  that  is  to  come  "  (Matt.  xi.  14).  Again,  after  his 
transfiguration  Jesus  testified  before  his  disciples:  "But 
I  say  to  you  that  Elias  is  already  come,  and  they  knew 
him  not,  but  have  done  unto  him  whatsoever  they  had  a 
mind"  (Matt,  xvii,  12).  \\\  all  these  instances,  therefore, 
the  arrival  of  Elias  is  identified  with  tiie  coming  of  John 
the  Bajitist  before  the  first  advent  of  the  Lord.  b.  Another 
reason  for  applying  Mai.  iv.  4-G  to  the  first  coming  of  the 
Lord  rests  on  the  identity  of  Ellas,  ])roniised  in  this  proph- 
ecy, with  the  angel  who  is  announced  in  Mai.  iii.  1  as 
coming  to  prepare  the  way  before  the  face  of  the  Lord 
(Reinke,  Keil,  Pressel,  'i'rochon).  Now  the  latter  is  clearly 
jiredicted  as  coming  before  the  first  advent  of  the  Messias. 
c.  Finally,  this  o])inion  is  not  destitute  of  external  authority. 
For  though  among  the  patristic  writers  8t.  Ephrem  seems 
to  be  the  only  one  to  defend  it,  it  has  found  a  number  of 
adherents  among  the  later  commentators  —  liarhebranis, 
Burgensis,  Arias,  Clarius  (dues  not  apply  it  to  the  first 
advent  exclusively),  Braun,  Bergier,  Jahn,  Scholz,  Acker- 
mann,  Dereser,  Keinke,  and  a  numl)er  of  Protestant  writers, 
such  as  Keil,  I'ressel,  etc.  <l.  'V\\q.  fifth  verse  is  in  Jewish 
tradition  clc.nly  ai>i)lied  to  the  forerunner  of  the  Messias, 
between  whose  first  and  se(;ond  advent  no  distiiietion  is 
made  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Synagogue  (ef.  Tinic  de  Kabbi 
Kliezer.  c.  10;  Deblmrim  llab.  :?;  Midrash  on  Cant.  i.  1; 
Talnind  and  Valkul,  a  number  of  passages). 


THE  PRECURSOR  OF  THE  MES8IAS.  805 

3.  The  Second  Advent. — Other  commentators  maintain 
that  the  propliecy  refers  only  to  the  second  advent  of 
Christ,  so  that  the  forerunner  promised  in  it  will  prei)are 
the  world  for  the  Lord's  second  coming.  The  reasons 
for  this  explanation  of  the  passage  may  be  reduced  to  the 
following: 

a.  The  LXX.  render  Mai.  iv.  5 :  "  Behold,  I  will  send 
you  Elias  the  Thesbite  .  .  ."  Now  a  forerunner  who 
would  come  only  in  the  spirit  of  Elias  could  not  be  called 
"the  Thesbite;"  hence  the  LXX.  suppose  that  Elias  will 
return  in  person.  The  same  Jewish  belief  is  expressed  in 
Matt.  xvii.  10 :  "  Why  then  do  the  scribes  say  that  Elias 
must  come  first  ?  "  And,  far  from  contradicting  this  tra- 
dition, Jesus  himself  rather  confirms  it,  saying:  "Elias 
indeed  shall  come,  and  restore  all  things  "  (Matt.  xvii.  11). 
The  same  incident  is  related  in  Mark  ix.  10  ff.  Ecclus. 
xlviii.  10  (cf.  ibid,  1-9)  testifies  to  the  existence  of  the 
same  tradition  among  the  Jews,  according  to  which  Elias 
in  person  is  "to  appease  the  wrath  of  the  Lord,  to  reconcile 
the  heart  of  the  father  to  the  son,  and  to  restore  the  tribes 
of  Jacob."  It  is  equally  evident  that  Elias  in  person  did 
not  do  all  this  before  the  first  advent  of  the  Messias. 
Hence  he  must  do  so  before  the  second  coming  of  Christ. 

h.  Another  reason  for  applying  the  prophecy  to  the  second 
advent  of  the  Messias  is  based  on  the  words  of  the  text 
itself.  Elias  the  prophet  is  to  come  "before  the  coming  of 
the  great  and  dreadful  day  of  the  Lord."  But  the  great 
and  dreadful  day  of  the  Lord  is  the  time  of  his  second 
coming,  as  is  clear  from  Is.  ii.  12;  xiii.  G;  xxxiv.  8;  Lam. 
i.  12;  ii.  22;  Joel  i.  15;  ii.  1;  Am.  v.  18;  Abd.  15;  Soph. 
i.  7,  14;  Zach.  xiv.  1.  According  to  Joel  ii.  31  this  day 
is  clearly  placed  after  the  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

c.  The  third  reason  for  applying  the  proj)hecy  of  Mai.  iv. 
4-G  to  the  Messias'  second  coming  is  taken  from  the  difi"er- 
ence  between  the  precursor  promised  in  this  passage  and 
the  forerunner  who  is  promised  in  iii.  1  ff.;  this  latter  is 
an  angel,  Avho  is  to  prepare  the  way  of  the  Lord,  and  whom 


3G6  BIRTH  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

the  Lord  will  presently  follow,  coming  to  his  tem})le  and 
restoring  the  sanctity  of  worship  and  sacrifice;  the  former, 
on  the  contrary,  is  a  prophet,  Elias  the  Thesbite  in  per- 
son, who  will  bring  abont  the  reformation  of  the  people, 
lest  the  Lord  may  on  his  coming  strike  the  earth  with 
anathema. 

(/.  The  patristic  testimonies  in  favor  of  this  explanation 
are  most  nnmerous:  Tertullian,  Hilary,  Origen,  Victorinus, 
Jnstin,  Ilippolytns,  Ambrose,  Angnstine,  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
Clirysostoni,  Gregory  the  Great,  John  Damascene,  Cyril, 
Tiieodoret,  etc.  (cf.  Knabenb.,  in  Prophet.  Min.  ii.  p.  49U). 
Among  the  commentators  who  adhere  to  this  opinion  may 
be  named  Ribera,  Sanchez,  Lapide,  Sa,  Knabenb.,  etc. 
Pusey  endeavors  to  interpret  the  prophecy  as  applying  to 
both  advents  of  the  Messias  (Minor  Propliets,  ii.  4!)9;  New 
York,  1889).  As  to  the  testimony  of  theologians  regarding 
the  meaning  of  the  prophecy,  it  is  too  clear  to  admit  of 
explanation.  Bellarmine  calls  the  opinion  that  Enoch  and 
Elias  in  person  will  return  ''most  true,"  and  the  oj)posite 
opinion  he  calls  heretical  or  approaching  heresy  (Rom. 
Pont.  iii.  G;  de  Controv.,  i.  p.  719,  Paris,  1GU8).  Suarez 
maintains  that  the  opinion  concerning  Elias'  coming  in 
person  is  either  of  faith  or  is  very  nearly  so  (in  iii.  8t. 
Thorn,  q.  59,  disp.  55,  sect.  2;  Moguntiie  1G04,  ii.  p.  G54). 
A  long  list  of  the  writers  and  interpreters  who  have  defended 
the  explanation  of  Mai.  iv.  4— G  according  to  which  Elias  is 
to  come  in  person,  may  be  found  in  Natal.  Alexander,  Hist. 
Vet.  Testam.,  in  mundi  quintam  aitatem  dissert.  G  (ed. 
Paris,  1T30,  ii.  p.  185). 

Mal.  iv.  5,  6. 

'  Rcmcml)or  tho  law  of  Moses  my  servant,  which  I  com- 
mamlcd  him  in  lluri'l)  for  ail  Israel,  the  precepts  and  judgments. 

'  Remember  the  law  of  Hoses.  Tlio  pooj)!*^  had  murmured,  sayinp: 
"  lie  lalKireth  ill  viiin  that  servetli  (i<i<l  .  .  ."  (iii.  14).  The  |)rophet, 
ill  coiicliKrnit,'  lii-<  reliiike,  insists  ii^aiii  on  the  importance  of  keepinjj 
all   the    law   nf  Moses,  lioih   its  eercMnoiiial   precepts  and   its  special 


THE  PRECUliSOIi  OF  TITE  MESSFAS.  367 

Behold,  I  will  send  you  Elias  the  prophet,  Ijefore  the  coming 
of  the  great  and  dreadful  day  of  the  Lonl.  ^And  he  shall  turu 
the  heart  of  the  fathers  to  the  children,  and  the  heart  of  the 
children  to  their  fathers,  lest  I  come  and  strike  the  earth  with 
anathema. 

Corollary. 

Though  the  prophecy  of  Mai.  iv.  -t-G  refers  properly  to 
the  second  coming  of  Christ,  still  the  Jews  admitted  its 
Messianic  character.  At  the  same  time,  the  Synagogue  did 
not  distinguish  between  the  first  and  second  coming  of  the 
Messias.  Hence  they  exjwcted,  in  general,  the  coming  of 
Elias  before  that  of  the  Messias.  The  disciples  in  Matt, 
xvii.  10  follow  the  scribes  in  this  confusion  of  the  two 
comings  of  the  Messias.  Jesus  in  his  answer  distinguishes 
between  the  two:  a.  Elias,  indeed,  shall  come  and  restore 
all  things  before  the  second  coming  of  Christ,  b.  But 
Elias  is  already  come,,  not  in  person,  but  in  tyjie,  before 
Christ's  first  coming:  and  thus  even  the  traditional  expec- 
tation of  the  Jewish  nation  with  regard  to  the  preparation 
of  the  ^lessias'  arrival  has  been  fully  accomplished,  so  that 
they  are  without  excuse. 

oriliuances  conceruiug  right  aiid  justice.  For  it  is  not  Moses  that 
ir:ive  this  law,  but  Uod  himself  is  its  author  (Hal.  iii.  19:  Heb.  ii.  i), 
who  wishes  the- law  to  train  the  ]>eople  for  the  Messianic  disi>ens;i- 
tioii  even  as  a  soluH>lmaster  trains  his  pupil.  Ami  thouirh  the  Jews 
iii!  a  nation  have  been  unfaithful  to  this  their  divinely  ap]H>iuted 
calling  (Koui.  X.  19-'21),  the  gifts  of  liod  are  without  repentance,  and 
the  Jews  too  will  tiuallv  be  brouirht  to  the  Messianic  belief  Korn. 
xi.  V2.  1.-,.  -ri). 

■  He  shall  turn  the  heart  of  the  fathers.  Explanations  :  1.  He  shall 
convert  the  hearts  of  the  fathers  together  with  the  children,  and  the 
hearts  of  the  children  together  with  the  fathers  (Cyril,  Mariana.  Pres- 
sel,  Kimchi,  Aben-Ezra^.  The  Hebrew  prejHisition  rendered  by  "  to "' 
in  our  English  text  may  be  rendered  '"with"  (cf.  Ex.  xxxv.  20^ 
:2.  He  shall  restore  peace  in  the  families  and  in  the  nation  at  large, 
reconciling  the  parents  with  their  children,  and  the  elders  with  their 
younger  brethren  (Hosenmiiller.  Schegg).  3.  He  shall  bring  a  univer- 
sal state  of  jicace  and  harmony  ^Ixx"lO  4.  He  shall  bring  alniut  a 
reconciliation  between  the  Jews  and  the  tientiles.  the  former  of  whom 
are  ealletl  fathers  by  the  prophet;  the  latter  are  named  ehildren  (Theo- 
doret,  Calmet).  5  He  shall  briuir  almut  that  Jews  and  lliristians 
alike,  who  are  now  at  variance  with  each  other,  will  adhere  to  the 
same  faith  in  Christ  (Jerome;  cf.  Ljipide.  Ueinke). 


PART  III. 

THE  INFANCY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
ADUIIATION   OF  THE  MAGI.     Ps.  lxxi.  1-17. 

Introduction. 

1.  Structuee  of  the  Psalm.— The  psalm  consists  of 
ten  stanzas,  eacli  being  composed  of  four  verses,  containing 
seven  syllables  eacli.  It  ma}'  be  divided  into  three  parts: 
a.  vv.  1-4  are  a  prayer  for  the  new  king;  h.  vv.  5-11  de- 
scribe, or  rather  predict,  the  universality  and  the  eternity 
of  the  new  king's  power;  c.  vv.  12-17  tell  us  with  what 
justice  and  kindness  he  will  rule.  d.  Tlie  verses  which 
follow  are  a  mere  closing  word  to  the  second  book  of 
psalms. 

2.  Author  of  the  Psalm.— r^  Kimchi  and  other  Hebrews 
have  been  of  opinion  that  the  psalm  was  written  by  David, 
wben,  a  short  time  before  his  death,  be  designated  his  son 
Solomon  as  his  successor  in  bis  kingdom.  Hensler  in 
"  Bemerkungen  fiber  Stellen  in  den  Psalmen  und  in  der 
Genesis"  has  successfully  refuted  this  opinion,  h.  The 
l)salm  must  have  been  Avritten  by  Solomon,  a.  First  of 
all,  tlie  title  of  the  psalm  sliows  tins.  For  though  the 
Vulgate  renders  the  title,  "  A  Psalm  on  Solomon,"  it  must 
be  noted  that  in  the  Hebrew  text  we  have  the  same  prepo- 

369 


/ 


;}7()  THE  INFANCY  OF  TlIK  MESSIAS. 

sitiuii  wiiifli  ill  must  iiistuiiccs  is  rciulurt'tl  in  tlie  \'ul^tite 
as  indicating  tlie  autliorshij).  Thus  wc  repeatedly  read, 
"A  l*sulni  of  David,"  which  sliould  luivo  been  rendered 
according  to  the  Vulgate's  present  reading,  "A  Psalm  on 
David."  f:i.  What  is  clear  from  the  inscription  of  the 
psalm  is  confirmed  by  its  style,  which  resembles  the  style 
of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  and  necessitates  that  the  author- 
shi])  of  the  psalm  be  ascribed  to  the  writer  of  Proverbs. 
y.  Finally,  the  allusions  to  distant  lands,  to  an  extended 
and  ])eaeeful  dominion,  and  a  certain  air  of  calm  and  cheer- 
ful rcllcction,  arc  cliaractcristic  of  the  son  of  David. 

3.  Subject  of  the  Psalm. — a.  The  psalm  consists  of 
})rayers  or  wishes,  formed  or  ex})resscd  on  the  accession  of 
some  particular  Hebrew  king,  i)robably  of  tSolomon  (Koseu- 
miiller  formerly),  h.  Part  of  the  psalm  refers  literally  to 
{Solomon  and  ty])ically  to  Christ;  part  refers  literally  to  the 
Messias  (Muis,  Hossuet,  Patrizi,  etc.).  Both  these  views 
are  based  principally  on  a  false  rendering  of  the  psalm's  title. 
c.  Here  as  in  psalm  xlv.  the  reigning  king  (Solomon,  Ozias, 
Josias)  is  idealized  (CHicyne).  Or  the  psalm  ])rcsents 
Israel's  aspirations  for  the  ideal  Messianic  king,  ty})itled 
by,  but  distinct  from,  the  reigning  monarch  (Briggs,  "Mes- 
sianic Proi)hecy,"  J)]).  KJT,  KSS).  d.  The  jisalm  is  wholly 
Messianic  in  its  liti'ral  sense.  'I'his  view  rests  on  the  fol- 
lowing argunu'iits:  1.  Justin,  Athanasius,  C'hrysostom,  Ter- 
tullian,  Tlicoilort't,  and  Augustine  have  explained  the  i)salm 
in  this  nianniT.  Their  testimonies  may  be  found  collected 
in  Ut'inke's  work  on  the  Psalms,  and  the  references  are  indi- 
cated in  Kilbcr's  Analysis  Bil)lica,  ii.  (JO.  2.  No  earthly 
king  could  have  riillillcd  the  jjredict ions,  and  justified  the 
king's  description  as  given  in  the  i)salm;  to  think  that  any 
king  could  have  thus  spoken  of  his  own  term  of  office  is 
to  ascribe  to  him  a  boundless  vanity  and  an  unbearable 
pride.  It  must  then  be  inferred  that  the  jtsalmist's  s])irit 
was  under  the  inlluence  of  a  power  which  j)rompted  these 
utterances  in  which  the  Church  in  all  ages  has  found 
announcements  of  the  Alessias. 


ADORATION  OF  THE  MAGI.  371 

3.  This  sentiment  of  tlie  Cliiircli  regarding  Ps.  Ixxi. 
fully  agrees  with  the  view  of  the  Synagogue.  We  may  be 
allowed  to  quote  the  most  remarkable  of  the  pertinent 
Jewish  testimonies: 

Verse  i.  The  Targum  renders:  *' 0  God,  give  the  decrees 
of  thy  judgments  to  the  king  Messias,  and  thy  righteousness 
to  the  son  of  David  the  king/'  The  Midrash  refers  this  to 
the  Messias  with  reference  to  Is.  xi.  1,  5  (fol.  27,  col.  4). 

Vei'se  10.  The  Midrash  on  Genesis,  or  Bereshith  Rabba, 
sect.  78,  has  the  following  passage:  "One  of  the  common 
peo})le  said  to  the  Rabbi  Hoshaya*  In  case  I  tell  you  a  nice 
thing,  would  you  repeat  it  in  the  college  in  my  mime  ?  AVhat 
is  it  ?  All  the  presents  which  our  father  Jacob  gave  to  Esau 
the  nations  ot  the  world  will  once  return  to  the  king  Mes- 
sias, as  it  is  said  :  '  The  kings  of  Tharsis.  .  .  .'  It  is  not 
written  'they  shall  bring,'  but  'they  shall  return.'  Truly, 
said  Rabbi  Iloshaya,  thou  hast  said  a  nice  thing,  and  I  will 
publicly  repeat  it  in  thy  name." 

Verse  w.  "  And  there  shall  be  a  firmament  on  the  earth, 
on  the  tops  of  mountains"  (a  handful  of  corn  in  the  earth 
upon  the  to})  of  the  mountains).  Tanchuma  (fol.  79,  col, 
4)  asks:  "When  will  this  be  ?"  "In  the  days  of  the  Mes- 
sias" is  the  answer.  The  Midrash  on  Eccles.  i.  9  has  the 
following  comment:  "As  the  first  Redeemer  fed  the  people 
with  numna  (cf  Ex.  xvi.  4),  so  too  Avill  the  last  Redeemer 
send  manna  down,  as  it  is  said:  and  there  shall  be.  .  .  ." 
The  Talmudic  tract  Shabbath  (fol.  30,  col.  2)  has  the  fol- 
lowing reference  to  Ps.  Ixxi.  IG:  "Rabban  Gamaliel  Avas 
sitting  one  day  explaining  to  his  disciples  that  in  the  future 
(i.e.,  in  Messianic  times)  a  woman  will  give  birth  every  day, 
for  it  is  said  :  '  She  travails  and  brings  forth  at  once '  (Jer. 
xxxi.  8).  A  certain  disciple  sneeringly  said :  '  There  is  no 
new  thing  under  the  sun'  (Eccles.  i.  9).  'Come,'  said  the 
Rabbi,  '  and  I  will  show  thee  something  similar  even  in  this 
world;'  and  he  showed  him  a  hen  which  laid  eggs  every 
day.  Again,  Gamaliel  sat  and  expounded  that  in  the  future 
world  the  trees  will  bear  fruit  every  day,  for  it  is  said : 


372  THE  INFAJSCY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

'Ami  it  sli;ill  bring  forth  buiighri  aiicl  bear  fruit '  (Ezcch. 
xvii.  23).  As  tlie  bouglis  grow  every  clay,  so  will  the  fruit 
grow  every  day.  The  same  disciple  sueei'iiigly  said  :  '  There 
is  nothing  new  under  tlie  sun.'  'Come/  said  the  liabbi, 
'  and  I  will  show  thee  something  like  it  even  now,  in  this 
age.'  And  he  directed  him  to  a  ca])er-berry,  which  bears 
fruit  and  leaves  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Again,  as  Ga- 
maliel was  sitting  and  expounding  to  his  disciples  that  the 
land  of  Israel  in  the  Messianic  age  would  produce  cakes 
and  clothes  of  the  finest  wool,  for  it  is  said :  *  There  shall 
be  a  handful  of  corn  in  the  earth,  .  .  .'  that  disciple  again 
sneeringly  remarked:  ' 'i'here  is  nothing  new  under  the 
sun.'" 

Verse  17.  "  Let  his  name  be  blessed  for  evermore,  his  name 
continueth  before  the  sun."  The  'J'almud  very  often  ap- 
])lies  this  verse  to  the  Messias.  In  I'esacliim  (fol.  54,  col.  1; 
cf.  Nedarim,  fol.  39,  col.  *^)  we  read:  "  Seven  things  were 
created  before  the  world.  These  are:  llie  Law,  for  it  is 
said:  'The  Lord  i)ossessed  me  in  the  beginning  of  his  ways, 
before  his  works  of  old'  (Prov.  viii.  2"i);  Kepentance,  for  it 
is  said:  '  Before  the  mountains  were  brought  forth,  or  ever 
thouhadst  formed  the  earth  and  the  world  .  .  .,  thou  saidst: 
lieturn,  ye  children  of  men'  (Ps.  xc.  2,  3);  the  (Jaidcn  of 
Eden,  for  it  is  said:  'And  the  Lord  i)hinted  the  (iarden 
before'  (Glen.  ii.  8);  Hell,  for  it  is  said:  *  For  Topliet  is 
ordained  of  old  '  (Is.  xxx.  33);  the  glorious  Throne  and  the 
Site  of  the  Sanctuary,  for  it  is  said:  'The  gh»rious  throne 
called  from  the  beginning,  and  the  place  of  our  saiietiuiry' 
(Jer.  xvii.  12);  the  Name  of  the  Messias,  for  it  is  said: 
'His  name  shall  endure  for  ever,  before  the  sun  (existed) 
his  name  was  Yinnon.'" 

To  show  that  the  Synagogue  always  regarded  Yinnon  as 
the  Messias,  we  may  ajjfteal  to  tlie  pi'ayers  for  the  Day  of 
Atoiienu'iit:  "Before  he  created  anything,  he  estal)lished 
his  dwelling,  and  Yinnon  the  lofty  armory  he  established 
from  the  beginning,  before  any  pe»»i)le  or  language.  He 
counselled  to  sulTei'  his  divine   pri'sence   to   rest  there,  that 


ADORATION  OF  THE  MAGI.  373 

those  who  eiT  might  be  guided  into  the  path  of  rectitude. 
Though  their  wickedness  be  flagrant,  yet  hath  lie  caused 
repentance  to  precede  it,  when  he  said:  '  AVasli  ye,  cleanse 
yourselves,'  Though  he  should  be  exceedingly  angry  with 
his  people,  yet  will  the  Holy  One  not  awaken  all  his  wrath. 
We  have  hitherto  been  cut  off  through  our  evil  deeds,  yet 
hast  thou,  0  our  Rock,  not  brought  consummation  on  us. 
The  Messias,  our  righteousness,  is  departed  from  us;  horror 
has  seized  us,  and  we  have  none  to  justify  us.  He  hath 
borne  the  yoke  of  our  iniquities,  and  our  transgression,  and 
is  wounded  because  of  our  transgression;  he  beareth  our 
sins  on  his  shoulder,  that  he  may  find  pardon  for  our  ini- 
quities. AVe  shall  be  healed  by  his  wound,  at  the  time  that 
the  Eternal  will  create  him  as  a  new  creature,  0  bring 
him  up  from  the  circle  of  the  eartli,  raise  him  up  from 
8eir,  to  assemble  us  a  second  time  on  Mount  Lebanon,  by 
the  hand  of  Yinnon."  A  number  of  other  llabbinic  testi- 
monies regarding  the  Messianic  nature  of  Psalm  Ixxi.  may 
be  seen  in  Keiuke's  "  Messiauische  Psalmeu,''  ii.  pp.  45  f., 
Giessen,  1858. 

Ps.  LXXI.  1-17. 

•  Give  to  the  king  thy  judgment,  O  God, 
And  to  the  king's  son  thy  justice, 
To  judge  thy  people  with  justice, 
And  tliy  poor  with  judgment. 
''Let  the  mountains  receive  peace  for  the  people, 

'  Give  to  the  king.  Tlie  parallel  toriiis  in  the  first  stanza  are:  "king" 
and  "king's  son,"  both  referring  to  the  Messias,  who  is  the  divinely 
appointed  king,  and  David's  royal  son  ;  "judgment"  and  "justice," 
constituting  together  the  gift  of  perfect  rule;  thy  people  and  thy  poor, 
for  the  people  was  really  destitute  of  all  supernatural  goods,  and  was 
entirely  given  over  into  the  hands  of  its  merciless  enemy.  The  clause 
"  to  judge  "  would  be  more  correctly  rendered  either  "  he  will  judge  " 
or  "  may  he  judge." 

^  Let  tlie  mountains.  The  parallel  terms  in  the  second  stanza  are  : 
"mountains"  and  "hills,"  represented  here  as  bringing  forth  peace, 
because  they  are  the  most  conspicuous  ])arts  of  the  country,  or  be- 
cause they  are  tlie  most  sterile  i)art  of  the  land,  so  that  their  fertility 
will   excite   most   admiration,  or  again,   because   they  are  the  most 


374  THE  INFANCY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

Ami  (Iiu  liills  juslii-e. 

He  sliall  jiidgo  the  pour  of  llic  people, 

And  lie  sliull  save  tlie  eliildreii  of  tlie  poor. 

'And  lie  shall  huinble  the  oijjjressor, 
And  he  shall  eoiitinue  witli  the  sun, 
And  before  the  moon,  throughout  all  generations. 
*  He  shall  come  down  like  rain  upoji  the  fleece, 
And  as  showers,  falling  gently  upon  the  earth; 
In  his  days  shall  justice  spring  up, 
And  abundance  of  i)eace,  till  tlie  moon  be  taken  away. 

''  And  he  shall  rule  fi'oin  sea  to  sea, 

icpivsentativi'  portion  of  the  land  ;  mountains  and  hills  signify  meta- 
phorically kings  and  i)rincfs  ;  "  peace"  and  "  jiidgniciit  "  are  parallel 
terms,  hecanse  the  jioor  and  the  children  of  (he  poor  will  find  their 
peace  in  olitaining  justice  ;  to  judge  them  justly  is  1(»  save  them. 

•'And  he  shall  humble.  Acconling  to  Hickeli  the  lirst  line  of  this 
stanza  is  wanting  in  the  present  text.  The  second  line  continues  the 
])rayer  of  the  ])receding  slanza  in  favor  of  the  jioor  and  lielpless 
against  the  rich  and  ])owerful.  Instead  of  rendering  "and  lie  sliall 
continue  .  .  .  "  it  would  be  l)etter  to  translate:  "they  shall  fear 
thet!  with  the  sun  and  l>efore  tlie  moou  .  .  .  ,"  i.e.,  the  kingdom  of 
th«5  Messias  will  endure  forever. 

■*  He  shall  come  down.  With  this  stanza  begins  a  description  of 
the  eternity  and  the  nniversality  of  the  Messianic  rule.  A  sini)de 
reading  of  the  text  snllices  to  show  us  that,  according  to  the  jiresent 
collocation  of  stanzas,  the  description  of  the  kingdom's  eti-rnity  and 
universality  is  blended  with  the  descrii)tion  of  its  justice  and  mercy. 
Hence  Hick<dl  has  transposed  vv.  ]!2-ir)  between  vv.  7  and  8  (accord 
ing  to  our  division,  the  third  and  fourth  slanza  from  the  end  would 
have  to  Ia'  placed  afti-r  the  third  stanza  from  the  beginning).  Mut 
this  manner  of  transposing  the  text  appears  to  be  too  violent  a  meas- 
ure to  <leserve  commendation.  The  rain  falling  on  the  cut-olT  grass, 
and  the  sliow(!rs  gently  irrigating  the  earth,  jnesent  a  beautiful  pic 
tiire  of  the  meek  and  benevolent  influence  of  the  Messianic  rule. 
Justice  and  jieact?  are  again  identified,  and  are  held  out  as  the  result 
of  the  Messias'  rule,  and  like  the  hitter  the  former  will  last  to  tlie 
end  of  tlie  moon,  i.  e. ,  forever. 

'  And  he  shall  rule.  The  extent  of  the  rule  is  fii-st  described  by  tin- 
limits  of  the  territory  ;  then  by  the  homage  of  the  subjects.  The 
territory  reaches  from  sea  to  sea,  and  from  the  river  unto  the  ends  of 
the  earth,  ti.  These  limits  are  the  .same  as  ihoie  described  in  Ex. 
x.xiii.  ;^1  :  "  And  I  will  set  thy  bounds  from  the  lU-d  Sea  to  the  seu 
f)f  the  Palestine's,  and  from  the  desert  to  the  river  [Euphrates]."  The 
king  will,  therefore,  according  to  this  ex])laiKition,  reign  over  the 
whole  of  Palestine,  from  tin-  I'-uphrates  to  the  Mediterranean,  and 
from  the  lattei-  to  the  Red  Sea.  d.  Hut  this  explanation  does  not  fit 
into  the  context,  since  in  the  b>llowing  clause  the  kingdom  is  said  to 


ADORATION  OF  THE  MAGI.  B75 

And  from  the  river  unto  the  ends  of  the  earth; 
Before  him  the  Ethiopians  shall  fall  down, 
And  his  enemies  shall  lick  the  ground. 

^The  kings  of  Tharsis  and  the  islands  shall  offer  presents, 
The  kings  of  the  Arabians  and  of  Saba  shall  bring  gifts, 
And  all  kings  of  the  earth  shall  adore  him, 
All  nations  shall  serve  him. 

'  For  he  shall  deliver  the  poor  from  the  mighty. 
And  the  needy  that  have  no  helper; 
He  shall  spare  the  poor  and  needy, 
And  he  shall  save  the  souls  of  the  poor. 

He  shall  redeem  their  souls  from  usuries  and  iniquity, 

extend  "  unto  tlie  ends  of  the  earth."  /i.  The  king  too  is  represented 
as  .superior  to  all  other  kings,  for  "  all  kings  of  the  earth  shall  adore 
him."  h.  Other  interpreters  have,  therefore,  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  psalmist  uses  the  above  phrases  as  they  are  used  by  Zacha- 
rias  (ix.  10)  :  "  And  his  power  shall  be  from  sea  to  sea,  and  from  the 
rivers  even  to  the  end  of  the  eartli."  Here  the  Messianic  kingdom  is 
<lescril)ed  as  embracing  all  the  parts  of  the  earth,  and  the  description 
is  couched  in  nearly  the  same  terms  that  are  used  by  the  psalmist 
(cf.  Ps.  ii.  8  ;  Dan.  iv.  19).  It  is  hard  to  determine  the  exact  seas 
which  the  prophet  and  the  psalmist  refer  to  ;  perhaps  they  are  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Indian  Ocean  ;  perhaps  the  expressions  are 
indefinite,  and  stand  for  any  two  seas  whatever,  or  again  they  may 
stand  for  the  seas  that  surrounded  the  habitable  laud  according  to 
the  ideas  of  the  ancients. 

*'  The  kings  of  Tharsis.  As  in  the  i)reccding  lines  the  psalmist 
mentions  the  uncivilized  inhabitants  of  the  dry  countries  or  of  the 
desert,  and  even  the  enemies  of  the  king  as  licking  the  dust,  so  does 
he  in  the  present  stanza  introduce  tlie  nations  from  the  farthest 
west,  from  Tartessus  in  Spain  and  from  the  islands  together  with  the 
n>ost  eastern  peoples,  from  Aral)ia  and  Saba,  as  doing  homage  to  the 
king  by  means  of  the  presents  they  offer  him.  Their  gifts  and 
])resents  are  probably  looked  upon  as  being  brought  at  regular 
seasons  and  stated  times,  so  that  they  amount  to  the  trilnite  of  sub- 
ject kings.  Tartessus  in  Spain  was  celebrated  for  its  silver  and  other 
metals  ;  Saba  was  reputed  for  its  gold  and  its  rich  ointments.  All 
this  well  applies  to  Solomon,  and  for  this  reason  have  several  com- 
mentators explained  the  literal  sense  of  the  psalm  as  referring  to 
Solomon.  It  seems  preferable,  for  the  reasons  ab<ive  given,  to  ajjjjly 
all  this  literally  to  Jesus  Chi-ist,  though  it  may  be  granted  that  the 
desciiptidU  is  ]>aiiite(l  in  Si)lnm()iiic  colors. 

■'  For  he  shall  deliyer  the  poor.  In  this  stanza  the  psalmist  assigns 
the  reason  why  all  the  kings  will  become  the  willing  sid)jects  of  the 
Messianic  king.  It  was  an  especial  duty  of  the  king  to  defend  the 
needy  and  give  justice  to  the  im])loriiig  poor,  to  feel  for  the  helpless 
and  save  the  li\es  of  the  uni)rote(tiMl. 


376  THE  INFANCY  OF  TJIE  MESSIAS. 

'And  their  name  shall  be  honnval)le  in  his  sij^ht, 

And  he  shall  live,  and  to  him  shall  be  given  of  the  gold  of  Arabia, 

For  him  tlicy  shall  always  adore;  they  shall  bless  him  all  the  day. 

"And  there  shall  be  a  firmament  on  the  earth, 

On  the  toi)s  of  mountains, 

Aljove  Libanus  shall  the  fruit  thereof  be  exalted. 

And  they  of  the  city  shall  flourish  like  grass  of  the  earth. 

'°  Let  his  name  be  blessed  for  evermore, 
Ilis  name  continueth  before  the  sun. 
And  in  him  shall  all  the  trilies  of  the  earth  be  blessed, 
All  nations  shall  magnify  him. 

Corollary. 

It  is  true  that  the  tentli  verse  is  applied  in  the  Liturgy 
of  the  Church  to  the  adoration  of  the  ^lagi;  but  it  woukl 

^  And  their  name.  According  to  the  Hebrew  text  we  must  render  : 
"  And  costly  is  tlieir  blood  in  his  siglit."  Ibmce  thv.  king  will  make 
every  elTort  to  prevent  tlie  i)loo(l  of  the  )>oor  from  being  shed  need- 
lessly. As  to  the  clause  "  he  shall  live"  interpretations  vary  con- 
cerning its  sul)ject.  II.  Some  maintain  that  the  "  alllicte<r' is  the 
subject.  'I'lie  meaning  of  the  whole  ])assage  is  then  the  following  : 
"  And  the  j'.oor  shall  live,  and  through  gratitud*;  he  shall  fjive  to  the 
king  of  the  gold  of  Arabia,  and  i)ray  for  him  continually,  and  liless 
liini  all  the  day."  'I'he  only  difliculty  in  this  explanation  arises  from 
the  fact  that  the  jioor  is  repn^sented  as  possessing  tlie  gold  of  .Arabia; 
but  llitzig  reganls  tlu'  jisalin  as  the  work  of  an  age  when  many  of 
the  .b'ws  luul  enriched  themselves  by  commerce,  though  they  were 
still  lo()ke<l  down  upon  liy  the  ( ientile  nations.  /*.  Other  interpreters 
are  of  f)))inion  that  the  i\ing  is  tlu-  subject  of  tlu-  jdirase  "  and  he 
shall  live."  Tliis  gives  us  the  meaning  :  "  bet  the  king  live  forever  ! 
they  shall  give  him  of  the  gold  of  .Arabia,  for  him  they  shall  always 
pray,  and  shall  bless  him  all  the  day. "  The  exclamation  in  this  in 
terpretation  is  surely  very  abrui>t.  Cheyne,  tlierefore,  suggests  that 
the  passagi!  may  be  a  (piotation  from  some  intercessory  prayer  for  tin- 
king. 

'And  there  shall  be  a  firmament.  The  Hebrew  text  reads:  '  Let 
tliere  be  a  liaudful  of  corn  (sown)  on  the  earth,  upon  the  to])  of  the 
mountains,  its  fruit  will  wave  like  (the  <'edars  of)  Lebanon  ;  they 
shall  blossom  (may  they  blossom)  out  of  the  city  like  the  herb  of  the 
earth." 

'"  Let  his  name  be  blessed.  Tlie  Hebrew  text  reads:  "His  name 
shall  br  fori'vcr  ;  bis  name  shall  coi\(inue  while  shines  the  sun  ;  all 
the  nations  shall  bless  themselves  by  him,  and  call  him  linjjpy." 
Tlu'se  last  phrases  are  evident  allusions  to  the  palrianhal  blessings. 


ADORATION  OF  THE  MAGI.  377 

be  wrong  to  limit  its  meaning  to  that  event  alone.  The 
homage  of  the  Magi  formed  only  the  beginning  of  the  ful- 
filment of  the  psalm.  The  prophecy  in  its  adequate  mean- 
ing has  reference  to  all  the  Gentiles  that  are  to  be  con- 
verted to  Christ. 


378  THE  INFANCY  OF  THE  MEHSIAS. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  SLAUdHTKU  OF  THE  HOLY  INNOCENTS. 
.iKii.  XXXI.  15-26. 

Introduction. 

1.  Connection  of  the  Prophecy  with  its  Context. — 

U])  to  chapter  xxx.  Jercmias  has  accom^jlished  the  first  part 
of  his  calling,  which  is  described  in  i.  10:  "  Lo  I  have  set  thee 
this  day  over  the  nations,  and  over  kingdoms,  to  root  up, 
and  to  pull  down,  and  to  waste  and  to  destroy."  Though  he 
gives  us  even  in  this  })art  of  his  ])ook  glimpses  of  a  brighter 
future  (cf.  iii.  14-lS;  v.  18;  xxiii.  3-8),  still  he  does  not 
fully  accomplish  the  second  part  of  his  mission,  which  is  "  to 
build  aiul  to  plant."  Chapters  xxx.-xxxiii.  are  wholly  de- 
voted to  this  easier  ami  more  congenial  task.  They  may 
be  conceived  as  consisting  of  three  parts.  The  restoration 
is  predicted  and  described  in  chapters  xxx.  and  xxxi.;  in 
chapter  xxxii.  the  promise  is  confirmed  by  a  symbolical  ac- 
tion; in  chapter  xxxiii.  finally  we  find  another  verbal  con- 
firmation of  the  same  prediction. 

Since  the  present  prophecy  is  contained  in  the  first  of 
the  above  three  parts,  we  may  confine  our  attention  to  the 
consideration  of  cha})ters  xxx.  and  xxxi.  They  contaiii  the 
following  divisions:  a.  xxx.  1-3  is  the  introduction  to  the 
whole;  I),  after  the  general  introduction  promising  freedom 
and  restoration,  the  prophet  describes  these  gifts  in  four 
stanzas,  representing  the  promised  blessings  under  ever 
varying  aspects:  xxx.  4-11,  the  national  calamity  may  re- 
semble llie  pangs  of  child-birlh,  ]>iit  the  Lord  will  Iireak 
tJK'  yoke  of  Ills  people.  ;iih1  restore  Havid's  royal  rule;  xxx. 


THE  SLAUGHTER  OF  THE  HOLY  INNOCENTS.  379 

12-22,  though  the  wounds  of  the  people  are  incurable  by 
human  means,  the  Lord  himself  will  heal  them,  restoring 
the  nation  and  the  state,  and  sending  the  Messianic  king 
and  priest;  xxx.  23-xxxi.  14,  though  the  Lord's  whirl- 
wind will  go  forth  and  exercise  its  fury  against  tlie  wiciied, 
God  will  be  mindful  of  his  eternal  promises  to  Israel, 
tlie  city  will  be  rebuilt,  and  the  land  of  the  covenant  will 
be  again  the  Israelites'  possession;  xxxi,  15-26,  Rachel 
may  now  weep  over  the  unhappy  lot  of  her  children,  but 
their  return  is  certain;  they  have  already  given  signs  of  re- 
pentance, c.  After  the  fourfold  description  of  Israel's 
deliverance  follow  four  predictions  of  future  blessings: 
xxxi.  27-;3()  the  Lord  promises  a  great  increase  of  num- 
I>er,s  in  the  land;  xxxi.  31-34,  a  new  covenant  is  jirom- 
iscd  to  the  returning  exiles;  xxxi.  35-37,  the  Lord  assures 
his  people  that  his  promises  are  as  unfailing  as  the  laws  of 
nature;  xxxi,  38-40,  an  accurate  description  of  the  future 
city  limits  is  given.  Our  prophecy  is  then  identical  with 
the  fourth  stanza,  which  describes  the  restoration  of  Israel. 

2.  Time  of  the  Prophecy.— From  xxxii.  2  and  xxxiii.  I 
it  follows  that  those  two  chapters  belong  to  the  period  of 
the  prophet's  honorable  detention  in  the  "  court  of  the 
prison."  Now  this  occurred  in  Sedecias'  tenth  year,  during 
the  second  part  of  the  siege,  which  had  been  interrupted 
by  a  temporary  withdrawal  of  the  Chaldeans,  who  attacked 
the  Egyptian  armies  that  had  been  sent  to  rescue  Jerusa- 
lem. Chapters  xxxii.  and  xxxiii.  belong  therefore  to  the 
year  589  B.C.  Since  chapters  xxx.  and  xxxi.  constitute  a 
continuous  whole  with  the  following  two  chapters,  they  too 
must  have  been  uttered  about  the  same  time,  though  from 
xxx.  2  it  is  probable  that  the  contents  were  uttered  before 
they  were  committed  to  writing.  The  words  "at  that 
time"  of  xxxii.  2  furnish  another  proof  that  the  prophecies 
were  not  written  till  after  Jerusalem  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  Clialdcans. 

3.  Explanations  of  Rachel's  Weeping  in  Rama. — 
a.    The   Hebrew   word  "Kama"    must   be   rendered   "on 


380      -        TUB  INFANCY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

high,"  so  that  wc  fiml  tlic  liglit  transhition  in  tlie  Vulgate 
and  the  English  text,  n.  But  in  the  Oreek  text  (excepting 
A  and  S)  the  ■word  has  been  taken  as  a  proper  name.  /^. 
Besides,  there  is  hardly  a  satisfactory  reason  assignable 
why  Rachel  should  weep  "on  high;"  for  the  circumstance 
that  from  such  a  place  her  lamentation  could  l)e  heard  far- 
ther, or  that  she  could  observe  her  children  going  into  cap- 
tivity from  such  a  position  is  no  sufticient  reason  for  the 
prophet's  language. 

b.  Other  authors  render  the  word  "Rama"  as  a  proper 
name,  maintaining  that  in  Rama  is  Rachel's  tomb,  and 
that  she  is  therefore  rightly  represented  as  weeping  in 
Rama.  From  Gen.  xxxv.  19,  and  from  the  testimony  of 
travellers,  it  is  clear  that  Rachel's  tomb  is  near  Bethlehem ; 
I.  Kings  X.  2  is  rightly  explained  by  de  Ilummeluuer, 
Comment.,  p.  113. 

c.  Rachel  is  said  to  weep  in  Rama  because  the  latter  is 
situated  on  the  limits  of  the  two  kingdoms,  so  that  her 
voice  can  be  heard  in  both  (Kcil,  Schneedorfer),  or  be- 
cause Rama  is  the  Israelite  city  nearest  to  Jerusalem,  so 
that  Rachel's  lamentations  over  the  captivity  of  the  Israel- 
ite tribes  can  be  heard  by  Jehovah  residing  in  Jerusalem 
(Scholz).  The  principal  reasons  on  which  this  opinion 
rests  are  reduced  to  the  assumption  that  Rachel  must  have 
wept  over  the  fate  of  the  ten  tribes  alone  (Jerome,  Calmet, 
Trochon),  and  to  the  difficulty  of  finding  a  more  satisfac- 
tory solution. 

d.  Rachel  weeps  in  Rama  for  the  reason  assigned  in  Jer. 
xl.  1 :  "  The  word  that  came.  .  .  ."  This  and  the  testimony 
of  Josephus  (Antiq.  VIII.  xii.  3)  show  that  the  Jewish 
captives  were  reviewed  in  Rama  previously  to  theii'  being 
taken  to  Baliylou,  aiul  that  all  such  as  were  unefjual  to  the 
journey  were  there  })ut  to  death.  Being  the  mother  of 
Benjamin,  Ephraim,  and  Maiuisses,  Rachel  is  regarded  as 
the  tuolhcr  of  the  twelve  ti'ibes,  the  ruin  of  which  became 
complete  when  even  the  southei'ii  kingdom  was  des( i-oyed, 
and    wbrn    its    king   and     nobles   were    led    into    captivity 


THE  SLAUGHTER  OF  THE  HOLY  INNOCENTS.  381 

(Ephrem,  Sa,  Sanchez,  Maldonatus,  Mariana),  That  this 
is  the  right  exphination  of  the  passage  nuiy  he  seen  from 
the  context.  In  xxx.  4  hoth  Jnda  and  Israel  are  addressed; 
xxxi.  5,  9  contains  promises  given  to  Ephraim,  bnt  xxxi.  G, 
12  contains  j^i'omises  for  Juda;  again,  the  promises  made 
to  Epliraim  (xxxi.  18,  20)  are  closely  connected  with 
Juda's  promises  (xxxi.  23,  24).  Since  then  both  kingdoms 
arc  remembered  in  the  promises,  what  i^revents  us  from 
seeing  in  the  lamentation  of  Rachel  her  grief  over  the  ruin 
of  both  kingdoms  ? 

4.  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecy. — St.  Matt, 
ii.  IS  applies  the  present  prophecy  concerning  Rachel's 
weeping  to  the  slaughter  of  the  Holy  Innocents.  In  this 
the  Evangelist  furnishes  us  a  beautiful  commentary  on  the 
prophet.  According  to  the  literal  sense  of  the  latter, 
Rachel  weeps  over  the  ruin  of  her  children's  kingdoms, 
brought  on  by  the  Assyrians  and  the  Bal)ylonians.  But 
the  true  and  final  ruin  of  Israel  will  follow  the  nation's 
rejection  of  the  Messias.  If  then  Rachel  weeps  over  the 
temporary  downfall  of  Juda  and  Israel,  she  weeps  with 
much  more  reason  over  their  lastiiig  destruction.  Now  the 
beginning  of  the  Messias'  rejection  by  the  Jewish  nation 
is  manifested  in  his  first  persecution,  when  his  life  is 
sought  that  he  may  not  become  the  king  of  Israel.  Hence 
the  Evangelist  beautifully  shows  the  true  fulfilment  of 
Jeremias'  prediction  regarding  Rachel's  lamenting  the 
ruin  of  the  nation,  representing  it  as  mingled  with  the 
weeping  of  the  mothers  whose  innocent  children  are  slain 
in  the  Messias'  first  deadly  persecution. 

Jer.  xxxi.   15-2G.  * 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  :  A  voice  was  lieard  on  high  of  lamenta- 
tion, of  mourning  and  weeping,  of  Rachel  weeping  for  her  chil- 
dren, and  refusing  to  be  comforted  for  them,  because  they  are 
not.     Thus  saith  the  Lord  :  Let  thy  voice  cease  from  weeping. 


382  TlIK  INFANCY  OF  THE  MFSSlAS. 

and  tliy  eyes  from  loars,  for '  there  is  a  reward  for  tliy  work, 
saith  the  Lord,  and  they  shall  return  out  of  the  land  of  the  enemy. 
And  there  is  hope  for  thy  last  end,  saith  the  Lord,  and  the  chil- 
dren shall  return  to  their  own  borders.  Hearing  I  heard  Ephraim 
when  he  went  into  captivity  :  ^  Thou  hast  chastised  me,  and  1  was 
instructed,  as  a  young  bullock  unaccustomed  to  the  yoke  ;  con- 
vert me,  and  I  shall  be  converted,  for  thou  art  the  Lord  my  God. 
For  after  thou  didst  convert  me,  I  did  penance,  and  after  thou 
didst  show  unto  me,  I  struck  my  thigh.  I  am  confounded  and 
ashamed,  because  I  have  born  the  reproach  of  my  youth.  '  Purely 
E[)hraim  is  an  honorable  son  to  me,  surely  he  is  a  tender  child  ; 
for  since  I  spoke  to  him  I  will  still  remember  him.  Therefore 
are  my  bowels  troubled  for  him  ;  pitying  I  will  pity  him,  .saith  the 
Lord.  *S('t  thee  up  a  watehtower,  make  to  thee  bitterness,  direct 
thy  heart  into  the  right  way,  wherein  thou  hast  walked  :  return, 

'  There  is  a  reward  for  thy  work.  Tlic  rcwanl  of  the  motlicr's  work 
consists  ill  the  goochit'.ss  and  tin-  success  of  her  children,  liacln-l's 
work,  consi.sting  in  her  care  and  anxiety  for  her  offspring,  will  then 
be  rewarded  by  .liuhi's  and  Israel's  return  to  th(>ir  land  of  jjroinise  (cf. 
Malvcnda,  Maiiana.  Sa,  Cahnet,  Knalienb.). 

•  Thou  hast  chastised  me.  The  Hebrew  text  reads:  "I  heard  Eph- 
raim huuenting  :  Tiioii  hast  chastised  me,  and  I  was  chastised.  .  .  ." 
Ephraim  acknowledges  his  faults,  and  jirays  (iod  for  the  grace  of 
conversion.  Hence  Kachel  may  feel  confident  that  d'od  will  havi- 
mercy  on  her  offspring,  'i'he  words  "after  thou  didst  convert  me  I 
did  ])enance,"  are  more  faithfully  rendered  :  "  after  my  falling  away 
1  did  iienance,"  or  "after  I  was  averted  from  thee  I  did  jx-nance.  ' 
K])liraini  strikes  his  thigh  as  a  sign  of  rejientance,  and  he  accepts  his 
shame  as  a  satisfaction  for  his  transgressions. 

'  Surely  Ephraim  is  an  honorable  son  to  me.  According  to  the  origi- 
nal text  we  must  render  the  ])hrase  as  a  cpiestion,  "  Is  P^jihraim  an 
honorable  son  to  me?  is  lie  a  tender  child?  As  often  as  I  sjicak 
against  him  I  lovingly  remember  him."  The  Lord  is  rejiresented  as 
being  astonished  at  himself  for  his  exceeding  mercy  towards  E])hraim. 
iMir  he  loves  him  almost  in  spite  of  himself,  ii.  Tlie  rendering  of  tliC 
A'uli^ate,  "since  the  time  1  s])oke  of  him.  .  .  ."gives  a  satisfactory 
meaning  ;  but  the  Hebrew  jiarticle  does  not  signify  "  since  the  time." 
hut  "as  often  as."  b.  Tho.se  who  render  :  "As  often  as  I  speak  of 
'him  I  remember  him,"  do  not  reflect  that  (iod  cannot  sjieak  of  any 
one  without  renumbering  him.  c.  Tho.se,  on  the  contrary,  who  ren- 
der "as  often  as  1  sjieak  to  him  in  love,"  i.e.,  in  older  to  win  his 
love,  must  consiiler  that  l''])hraim  is  here  not  rejirescnted  as  a  virgin, 
whose  love  is  sought,  but  as  a  wayward  sf)n. 

^  Set  thee  up  a  watehtower.  The  Hebrew  text  must  lie  rendered: 
"  Set  the  ii]>  sit;ns  (to  indicate  the  way),  erect  unto  thee  columns  (for 
the  same  pur])ose)."  Tiien  follows  an  exhortation  to  walk  back  in  the 
wav  thus  marked  out.      'I'liis  exhortation  chau'Ti's  into  an   uii^enl  de- 


TEE  SLAUGHTER  OF  THE  HOLY  INNOCENTS.  H83 

O  virgin  of  Israel,  return  to  these  thy  cities.  How  long  wilt  thou 
be  dissolute  in  deliciousness,  O  wandering  daughter  ?  for  the  Lord 
hath  created  a  new  thing  upon  the  earth  :  ^  A  woman  shall  com- 
mand, in  the  words  :  "  How  long  wilt  tlioa  be  dissolute  .  .  .?"  This 
last  address  shows  hesitancy  and  fickleness  of  purpose  on  the  part  of 
the  person  addressed. 

^  A.  woman  shall  compass  a  man.  Explanations  :  a.  A  woman  shall 
protect  a  man  {Hosenniiiller,  I'nibreit,  Gesenius,  Bade).  It  would  be 
surely  a  new  thing  if  a  weak  and  timid  woman  were  to  protect  a 
strong  and  courageous  man.  a.  But  this  is,  in  the  first  place,  a 
rather  ludicrous  motive  to  jjropose  to  the  men  of  Israel  in  order  to 
move  them  to  return,  /i.  Again,  in  peace,  such  a  defence  is  useless  ; 
in  war,  such  a  protection  is  not  desirable. 

h.  Another  explanation  contends  that  the  passage  means  :  a  woman 
shall  seek  a  man.  But  not  to  mention  the  difficulty  of  drawing  this 
meaning  out  of  the  Hebrew  text.  Is.  iv.  1  assigns  this  reversed  order 
of  the  sexual  seeking  as  a  sign  of  the  greatest  calamity. 

c.  Ewald  has  proposed  the  rendering  :  a  woman  shall  change  into 
a  man,  i.e.,  by  God's  assistance  even  the  woman  shall  attain  the 
strength  and  the  courage  of  a  man.  But  this  interpretation,  too,  dif- 
fers from  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  text. 

d.  Sanchez,  Tirinus,  Calmet,  Keil,  Cheyne,  Nilgelsbach,  and  oth- 
ers interpi'et  the  woman  as  designating  the  Synagogue  or  Israel,  and 
the  man  as  signifying  God.  The  meaning  of  the  whole  clause  is, 
therefore,  that  God  will  again  dwell  in  the  midst  of  Israel,  that 
Israel  will  convert  itself  wholly  to  its  (iod,  or  that  Israel  will  again 
adhere  to  God  with  all  the  fervor  of  its  former  love.  a.  But  the 
Hebrew  text  hardly  admits  of  such  a  meaning  ;  /J.  there  is  no  special 
reason  for  understanding  by  the  woman  Israel  or  the  Synagogue  ; 
y.  and  finally,  according  to  this  interpretation  the  moaning  of  the 
whole  passage  would  be  tautological  :  Israel  shall  return  to  its  God, 
for  Israel  shall  love  its  God. 

e.  Orelli's  interpretation  :  the  Church  of  God  will  protect  the  earth 
with  its  robu.st  and  valiant  men,  mast  be  rejected  for  the  same  rea- 
sons which  we  urged  against  the  last  opinion. 

/.  Jerome,  Thomas,  Vatable,  Maldonatus,  Sanchez,  Sa,  Mariana, 
Lapide,  Estius,  Menochiiis,  Tirinus,  Malvenda,  (iordon,  Loch, 
Mayer,  Scholz,  Trochon,  Knabenbauer,  and  many  others  have,  there- 
fore, adopted  the  interpretation  "a  woman,  i.e.,  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
shall  compass  a  man,  i.e.,  the  Word  Incarnate."  This  interpretation 
must  be  adopted  for  the  following  reasons:  1.  It  fits  accurately  into 
the  context.  2.  It  satisfies  the  two  conditions  that  must  be  verified 
regarding  this  text ;  it  must  be  verified  in  the  Messianic  time,  as  the 
preceding  stanzas  too  end  with  the  hope  of  the  Messianic  time  (xxx. 
9  ;  21  ;  xxxi.  11  H.),  and  it  must  agree  with  the  existing  Messianic 
predictions,  since  Jereniias  often  repeats  previous  Messianic  promises 
in  order  to  impress  them  on  the  mind  and  heart  of  his  peo])le  (cf.  Is. 
vii.  14;ix.  6;  Mich.  v.  3).  B.  (t.  As  to  the  exception  that  the  Hebrew 
term  here  used  does  not  mean  "  virgin,"  there  is  no  need  of  ex])ressly 
calling  the  Messias"  mother  virgin  every  time  she  is  referred  to.  /i. 
As  to  the  absence  of  the  definite  article  before  the  noun  "woman," 


884  THE  INFANCY  OF  THE  MESS  J  AS. 

l)ass  a  man.  Tims  saitli  tlic  Lord  of  liosts,  tlie  (Jod  of  Israel  :  As 
yet  shall  tlicy  say  this  word  in"  the  land  of  Juda,  and  in  the  cities 
thereof,  when  1  shall  bring  back  their  captivity  :  The  Lord  bless 
thee,  the  beauty  of  justice,  the  holy  mountain.  And  Juda  and 
all  his  cities  shall  dwell  tlierein  together,  the  husbandman  and 
they  that  drive  the  flocks.  For  I  have  inebriated  the  weary  soul, 
and  I  have  filled  every  liungry  soul.  Upon  this  I  was  as  it  were 
awaked  out  of  sleep,  and  I  saw,  and  my  sleep  was  sweet  to  me. 

Corollaries. 

1.  It  follows  from  what  has  been  said  that  Jeremias' 
j)i'()phecy  ill  its  literal  sense  does  not  refer  to  the  slaughter 
of  the  Holy  liiiioeeiits.  But,  on  the  otlier  hand,  it  cannot 
be  said  that  the  jirophet's  words  can  be  understood  of  the 
Holy  Innocents  only  by  way  of  accommodation.  For  as 
we  have  seen,  Kachcl  weeps  over  the  destruction  of  her 
})eople,  brought  about  by  the  Assyrian  and  the  Babylonian 
captivities.  Now  this  ruin  was  only  a  type  of  the  future 
ruin  that  was  to  follow  Israel's  rejection  of  its  Messias. 
The  latter  ruin  began,  therefore,  with  the  slaughter  of  the 
Holy  Innocents,  since  with  this  began  the  outward  rejec- 
tion of  the  Messias.  Kachel,  therefore,  is  really  weeping 
and  wailing  over  the  fate  of  lier  people  in  the  lamentations 
of  the  Bethleheniite  women. 

this  construction  occurs  also  iu  other  passages  where  a  definite  per- 
son is  sj)oken  of  (cf.  Ewald,  l>ehrbucli,  sect.  277  b.c).  y .  The  Greek 
Fathers  do  not  iiiiaiiiiiumsly  follow  this  ex])]aiiatioii,  because  they 
coninioiily  adliere  to  the  renileriug  of  the  LX.\.  version,  wliicii  reads  : 
"  men  sliall  go  about  in  safety."  ytill,  !St.  Athanasius  twice  ap- 
l)eals  to  the  rendering  of  Aquila,  "God  has  created  a  new  thing  in 
woman."  and  explains  the  text  of  the  Incarnation. 

"In  the  land  of  Juda.  Since  there  lias  been  (jue.stion  of  the  Mes- 
sias in  the  ])rt'ceding  sentence,  the  transition  to  the  land  of  .hida, 
whose  king  the  Ab'ssias  is,  otTers  nothing  su^prisinl,^  'J'he  address  : 
" 'I'lie  liord  bless  thee,  U  l)eauty  of  justice,  ()  lioly  mountain,"  iiub- 
cates  the  principal  features  of  the  Messianic  etTects  in  .b-rusaleni. 
Juda  witli  its  (;ities,  tlic  husl)andnian  and  the  sliei)herd  shall  again 
live  in  tiie  jironiised  land,  God  having  given  al)undance  to  all  the 
hungry  and  the  weary.  After  this  the  ])ro]thet  (not  Jehovah,  nor 
Juda)  awakes  from  his  sleep,  i.e.,  his  state  i)f  prophclic  ecstasy,  and 
rejoices  in  the  glad  promises  he  had  received. 


THE  SLAUGHTER   OF  THE  HOLY  INNOCENTS.  385 

3.  Since  the  words,  "  a  woman  shall  compass  a  man," 
refer  to  the  Blessed  Virgin's  conception  of  the  Word  Incar- 
nate, and  since  the  same  are  said  to  describe  "  a  new  thing 
upon  the  earth,"  it  follows  that  the  Word's  conception  will 
be  brought  about  in  an  extraordinary  manner.  Isaias  pre- 
dicted that  the  mother  would  be  a  virgin;  Micheas  too 
calls  the  Messias'  mother  a  virgin,  but  Jeremias  describes 
her  conceiving  as  miraculous.  The  meaning  of  these  pre- 
dictions was  not  fully  determined  till  the  angel  said  to 
Mary:  "The  Holy  Ghost  shall  come  upon  thee,  and  the 
power  of  the  Most  High  shall  overshadow  thee  "  (Luke  i. 
35). 


386  THE  INFANCY  OF  TllK  MESSIAS. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  FLIGHT  INTO  EGYPT.     OS.  xi.  1-7- 

Introduction. 

1.  Connection  of  the  Prophecy  with  its  Context.— 

'I'iit'  proplu'l,  l)L'giiiiiiii<;-  with  ix.  10  and  coiitimiiiiif  to  xiv. 
10,  has  two  iiiaiii  points  in  view:  <i.  lie  de.scrilx's  wliat 
God  has  done  for  liis  people,  and  what  the  people  lias  done 
for  God.  b.  He  depicts  thefntnre  Messianic  salvation.  In 
the  first  part  of  c.  xi,,  where  our  prophecy  is  found,  the 
sacred  writer  calls  special  attention  to  the  following  con- 
trasts: a.  (ilod  has  led  his  peo2)le  out  of  Egypt,  and  has 
instructed  it  by  means  of  his  prophets,  but  the  people  has 
adhered  to  its  idols,  b.  God  has  guarded  the  people  by  a 
special  providence,  but  the  people  has  most  ungratefully 
ignored  God.  c.  God  has  shown  his  loving  assistance  in 
all  his  people's  difiiculties  and  trials;  but  now  it  shall  be 
given  over  to  the  sword  and  to  exile,  and  its  punishment 
shall  not  be  avei'ted,  because  it  is  inipenitrnt. 

2.  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecy,— ?/.  The 
words  "  1  called  my  son  out  of  Egypt  "  refer  in  their  literal 
sense  to  God's  freeing  the  Israelites  out  of  the  Egyjjtian 
bondage,  a.  This  is  evident  from  the  whole  context  of 
the  passage,  /i.  and  is  well  illustrated  by  the  words  of 
Ex.  iv.  22  and  xix.  5,  G,  where  Israel  is  called  God's  first- 
born, and  God's  priestly  and  I'oyal  laci',  y.  The  same 
may  be  inferred  from  the  LXX,  rendering,  *' iriy  sons,'' 
whicli  ajiplies  to  the  whole  Israelite  nation,  and  from  the 
Chaldee  paraphrase,  which  gives  a  similar  translation,     Still 


THE  FLIOIIT  INTO  EGYPT.  387 

Aquila,  Symmachns,  and   Theodotion  follow  the  Hebrew 
text,  retaining  its  singular  number. 

b.  St.  Matthew  (ii.  15),  speaking  of  our  Lord's  stay  in 
Egypt,  says:  "And  he  was  there  until  the  death  of  Herod, 
that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  the  Lord  spoke  by  the 
prophet,  saying  out  of  Egypt-  have  I  called  my  son." 
There  can  then  be  no  doubt  that  the  proi)het's  words  were 
in  some  real  sense  fulfilled  by  the  return  of  the  child  Jesus 
fro  n  Egyjit.  This  is  not  hard  to  understand,  if  we  reflect 
that  Israel's  adoption  to  the  sonship  of  God  was  only  a 
figure  of  the  Messias'  real  sonship;  Israel's  call  from 
Egypt  is  therefore  rightly  regarded  as  prefiguring  the 
Messias'  recall  from  the  land  of  exile. 

Os.  XI.  1-7. 

Because  *  Israel  was  a  child,  and  I  loved  him,  and  I  called  my 
son  out  of  Egypt.  As  they  called  them  that  went  away  from 
before  their  face,  they  offered  victims  to  Baalim,  and  sacrificed  to 
idols.  And  I  was  like  a  foster-father  to  Ephraim,  I  carried  them 
in  my  arms,  and  they  knew  not  that  I  healed  them.  I  will  draw 
them  with  the  cords  of  Adam,  with  the  bonds  of  love,  and  I  will 

'  Because  Israel  was  a  child.  The  Hebrew  conjunction  rendered 
"  because  "  has  both  a  causal  and  a  temporal  meaning  (when).  The 
latter  interpretation  is  preferred  by  Jerome,  the  Syriac  version,  Sa, 
Mariana,  Tirinus;  but  the  LXX.,  Aquila,  Symmachus,  and  Theodotion 
adhere  to  the  causal  meaning  of  the  conjunction.  God,  therefore, 
says  :  Even  when  Israel  was  a  child  I  loved  him  on  account  of  his 
very  helplessness  and  called  him  out  of  the  Egyptian  captivity  from 
which  he  could  not  have  been  freed  by  any  natural  means.  But  as 
my  prophets,  one  and  all,  spoke  to  the  nation,  it  turned  away  its  face 
from  them,  and  adhered  to  its  idols.  I  behaved  towards  Ephraim 
like  a  nurse,  taking  them  as  one  takes  a  child  over  his  arms,  but 
Ephraim  did  not  know  me.  I  drew  Ephraim  with  the  bonds  of 
human  love  and  affection,  and  1  behaved  to  them  as  a  merciful  hus- 
bandman treats  his  ox,  freeing  him  at  stated  intervals  from  his  gall- 
ing yoke,  and  I  procured  even  his  food  for  him.  But  the  severity  of 
the  i)unishment  will  be  in  keeping  with  the  greatness  of  the  offence  ; 
the  Egyptian  bondage  may  have  been  extremely  irksome,  Ephraim's 
bondage  will  be  more  cruel  yet  ;  the  king  of  Assyria  will  invade  the 
land,  his  sword  shall  whirl  down  upon  the  cities  and  the  strong 
places,  and  the  inhabitants  shall  be  led  away  without  hope  of  ever 
returning. 


388  TIIK  INFANCY  OF  THE  MESSIAS. 

be  to  tliem  as  one  that  takctli  off  tlic  yoke  on  tlioir  jaws,  and  I 
put  liis  meat  to  him  that  he  might  eat.  He  siiail  not  return  into 
the  hind  of  Egypt,  hut  tlie  Assyrian  sliail  lie  iiis  king,  l)ecause 
they  would  not  be  converted.  The  sword  hath  Itegun  in  his  cities, 
and  it  shall  consume  hiscliosen  men.  and  shall  devour  their  heads. 
And  my  peojjle  shall  long  for  my  return,  but  a  yoke  shall  be  put 
upon  them  together,  which  shall  not  be  taken  off. 

Corollary. 

According  to  Pusey,  St.  Mattliew  does  not  appeal  to  this 
prophecy  in  order  to  prove  anything,  but  only  for  the  siike 
of  pointing  out  the  relation  of  God's  former  dealings  with 
the  iieo})le.  The  ulterior  object  of  the  evangelist  is  there- 
fore nothing  else  than  to  remove  the  prejudice  that 
might  arise  in  the  mind  of  a  high-caste  Jew  from  the 
circumstance  that  the  early  infancy  of  Jesus  was  passed  in  a 
polluted,  heathen  land.  St.  Matthew's  argument  proceeds, 
therefore,  in  this  way:  Your  fathers  have  lived  in  the  land 
of  the  unbeliever  and  the  Gentile.  But  this  fact  has  been 
no  obstacle  to  God's  love  for  your  nation.  Therefore 
Jesus'  life  in  Egypt  cannot  be  considered  an  obstacle  to 
his  divine  mission  and  his  divine  cliaracter.  It  has  been 
shown  that  St.  Matthew  had  a  far  better  reason  for  ai)peal- 
ing  to  Osee's  prediction  concerning  Ephraim,  and  that 
therefore  the  object  mentioned  by  Pusey  cannot  be  said  to 
be  the  evangelist's  sole  motive  for  quoting  the  prophet. 


PART  IV. 

THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  ORIENT.     Zach.  in.;  vi.  9-15. 

Introduction. 

1.  Connection  of  the  Prophecies  with  their  Con- 
text.— The  Book  of  Zacluirias  is  divided  into  three  purts: 
the  first  contains  a  short  introduction,  and  then  proposes 
eight  visions  (i.  1-vi,  8);  the  second  teaches  the  people 
liow  to  prepare  for  the  Messianic  benefits  that  have  been 
promised  (vii.,  viii.).  In  the  third  part  the  burden  of  the 
Lord  against  Hadrach  and  Israel  is  described  (chapters  ix.- 
xi.;  xii.-xiv.).  Our  two  prophecies  belong  to  the  first  part: 
Chapter  i.  7-17  contains  a  vision  of  the  divine  chariots  and 
horses,  which  are  the  Lord's  messengers  upon  earth;  i,  18-21 
represents  four  horns,  symbolizing  the  nations  hostile  to 
Israel;  ii.  shows  the  dimensions  of  the  new  Jerusalem 
under  the  image  of  an  angel  going  out  with  his  measuring- 
line  to  lay  out  the  site  of  the  new  city;  iii.  Josue  or  Jesus, 
the  highpriest,  stands  before  the  Lord,  laden  with  the 
sins  of  the  people;  iv.  a  golden  candlestick  and  two  olive- 
trees  represent  the  restored  community;  v.  1-4,  a  roll  in- 
scribed Avitli  curses  flies  over  the  land,  as  a  sign  that  in 
future  the  curse  for  crime  will  of  itself  light  upon  the 
criminal;  v.  5-11,  Israel's  guilt,  personified  by  a  woman,  is 
cast  into  an  ephah-measure,  covered  by  its  heavy  lid,  and 

389 


390  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

transported  to  l^abylon;  vi.  1-8,  four  clmriots,  Avith  A'arious- 
ly  colored  horses,  appear  in  order  to  execute  judgment  in 
the  different  quarters  of  the  earth.  Chapter  vi.  9-15  forms 
an  historical  appendix. 

As  to  the  time  of  these  prophecies,  Zacharias  lived  and 
])ro})hesied  in  the  second  and  fourth  years  of  Darius 
Jlystaspis  (i.  1,  7;  vii.  1).  Hence  we  must  refer  the  book 
to  the  years  520  and  518  B.C.  The  eighth  month  of  the 
second  year  of  Darius  falls  between  the  date  of  Agg.  ii.  1-1) 
and  Agg.  ii.  10-19.  Zach.  i.  7-vi.  8  belongs  to  the  twenty- 
fourth  day  of  the  eleventh  month  of  the  same  year,  while 
chapters  vii.,  viii.  are  ascribed  to  the  fourth  day  of  the  ninth 
month  of  the  fourth  year  of  Darius. 

Returning  to  the  third  chapter,  we  may  divide  it  into 
two  parts:  vv.  1-5,  the  highpriest  appears  laden  with  the 
sins  of  the  people  and  is  accused  by  Satan,  but  acquittetl 
and  given  rule  over  the  temple,  with  the  right  of  priestly 
access  to  the  Lord;  vv.  6-10,  the  divine  protection,  the 
coming  of  the  Messias,  the  restoration  of  the  theocracy,  and 
abundance  of  peace  are  promised.  In  the  second  prophecy, 
vi.  9-15,  the  prophet  is  commanded  to  take  of  the  gold  and 
silver  which  some  of  the  exiles  had  sent  as  offerings  for  the 
temple,  and  to  make  therewith  crowns  for  the  highpriest. 
At  tlie  same  time,  the  prophet  repeats  the  promise  of  the 
Messias,  who  will  rule  successfully,  and  complete  the  buikl- 
ing  of  the  tem])le. 

2,  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecies.— The 
Messianic  Ix'aring  of  bolli  ])rophecies  may  be  proved  from 
the  name  Orient,  which  is  given  to  the  promised  deliverer 
and  restorer,  "I  will  bring  my  servant  the  Orient,"  the 
]n-ophet  says,  iii,  8;  and  vi,  12,  "behold  a  man,  the  Orient 
is  his  name."  Now  it  must  be  noted  that  in  both  places  the 
Hebrew  text  reads  "  tsemach,"  or  "  binl,"  instead  of  Orient. 
lUit  the  name  "  bud  "  is  peculiar  to  the  Messias,  Hence 
the  above  passages  refer  to  the  Messias.  As  to  the  statement 
that  "  bud  "  signifies  tiie  Messias  in  the  language  of  the  Old 
Testament  prophets,  numerous  instances  show  its  undeni- 


THE  MES8IAS  IS   THE  ORIENT.  89 1 

jible  truthfulness.  Is.  iv.  2  reads:  "In  that  day  the  bud  of 
tlie  Lord  shall  be  in  magnificence;"  Jer.  xxiii.  5  has  a  simi- 
lar promise:  "  Behold,  the  days  come,  saith  the  Lord,  and  I 
will  raise  up  to  David  a  just  branch  (tsemach)."  Again, 
in  xxxiii.  15  the  divine  promise  is  worded  similarly:  "In 
those  days,  and  at  that  time,  I  will  make  the  bud  of  justice 
to  spring  forth  unto  David."  A  similar  argument  might 
be  drawn  -from  the  Hebrew  text  of  II.  Kings  xxxii.  2-5. 
But  the  passages  quoted  sufficiently  show  that  the  prophets 
designate  the  Messias  by  "  bud  "  or  "  bud  of  the  Lord." 

Besides,  in  Zach.  iii.  8  the  "  bud  "  is  called  "  my  servant." 
But  "  servant  "  is  another  Messianic  title.  Heuce  in  this 
passage  the  "bud,"  or  the  Orient,  as  it  is  rendered  in  our 
version,  designates  the  Messias.  To  complete  the  inferen- 
tial value  of  this  argument,  we  have  only  to  show  that  in 
prophetic  language  "servant"  is  a  name  of  the  Messias. 
Since  this  will  be  clearly  demonstrated  in  the  fifth  chapter 
of  this  treatise,  we  need  not  weary  the  reader  by  an  antici- 
pation of  the  proof. 

But  it  may  be  asked  how  the  name  Orient  can  have  been 
received  into  our  versions  instead  of  the  original  "  bud." 
It  appears  that  this  exchange  of  names  is  due  to  a  mis- 
understanding of  the  Greek  word  orcfroA/;,  by  which  the 
LXX.  rendered  the  Hebrew  "  tsemach"  ip'^^'^).  Jerome  (in 
vi.  12)  undoubtedly  considers  the  Greek  dvaToXi)  as  de- 
rived from  avaTeXXeiv,  which  is  used  of  the  rising  sun  or 
moon,  but  also  of  growing  plants.  The  LXX.  must  have 
introduced  the  word  into  their  version  in  this  latter  mean- 
ing. But  subsequent  translators  took  the  avaroX?)  of  the 
LXX.  in  its  more  common  acceptation,  as  signifying  the 
rising  of  the  sun  or  the  moon,  and  hence  also  the  region 
in  which  that  phenomenon  takes  place,  i.e.,  the  east.  Fol- 
lowing the  analogy  of  this  reasoning,  Ribera  maintains  that 
even  the  Orient  of  Luke  i.  78  must  be  taken  in  the  sense  of 
"  bud,"  or  "plant."  Zachary,  the  author  tells  us,  ascribes 
to  this  growing-up  plant  the  power  "  to  enligliten  them 
that  sit  in  darkness  and  in  the  shadow  of  death,"  because 


393  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

this  plant  alone  is  "^  the  true  light  wliich  enlightcneth 
every  man  that  coineth  into  this  world."  The  father  of 
the  Baptist,  therefore,  did  uot  think  of  the  figure  of  the 
rising  sun  when  he  spoke  about  the  light  issuing  from  the 
Orient.  The  LXX.  rendering  of  Ezech.  xvi.  7;  xvii.  10; 
fJcn.  xix.  25;  Is.  Ixi.  11  confirms  this  interpretation  of 
"  tsemach"  (^'--^).  For  in  the  former  two  passages  the 
Hebrew  term  is  rendered  avaTcAi)  with  such  additional 
determinations  as  to  render  tlie  reference  of  the  Geek  word 
to  the  growing  plant  undenial)ly  evident.  In  the  passage 
of  Gen.  the  LXX.  employ  the  plural  participle,  so  that  they 
evidently  think  of  "buds"  or  "plants,"  while  in  the  pas- 
sage of  Isaias  they  render  the  Hebrew  term  by  "  flower." 
Still,  these  reasons  do  not  remove  all  douljt;  in  Syriac  the 
word  "  tsemach"  {P'^^)  is  applied  to  the  rising  sun,  so  that 
the  Syriac  version  interprets  "  tsemach "  in  Zach.  iii.  as 
"  radiance,"  or  "  brightness."  It  is,  therefore,  possible  that 
the  LXX.  too  may  have  understood  the  passage  in  the  same 
manner,  especially  since  they  interpret  "tsemach  "  in  Is. 
iv.  2  as  applying  to  the  giving  forth  of  light. 

Finally,  we  must  draw  attention  to  the  circumstance 
that  the  Targum  too  applies  these  propiietic  })assagcs  to 
the  ^lessias.  Zach.  iii.  8  is  rendered:  "Behold,  I  bring 
my  servant  the  Messias,  who  shall  be  revealed."  And  the 
same  'J'argum  renders  Zach.  vi.  12:  "And  thou  shalt  s})eak 
to  him,  saying:  Thus  speaketh  the  Lord  of  hosts,  saying, 
Behold,  the  man,  Messias  is  his  name,  who  shall  hereafter 
be  revealed  and  anointed."  A  great  num1)er  of  Rabbinic 
testimonies  showing  that  "branch,"  or '*  bud,"  is  a  Mes- 
sianic name  have  been  ([uoted  in  the  explanation  of  Jcr. 
xxiii.  n  in  jtart  1.  cluii).  vi.  sect.  2.  lint  even  the  IJatioualists 
generally  grant  that  "  branch,"'  or  "bud,"  is  a  Messianic 
title  in  the  prophetic  writings  of  the  Hebrews. 

It  may,  liowever,  be  asked  whether  the  ])rophecies  refer 
to  the  j\lessias  in  their  literal  sense,  or  only  in  their  ty|»ical 
meajiing.  Most  writers  hold  the  former  opinion ;  still.  St. 
Ephrem,  'J'heodoret,  Theodore  of   Mopsuestia,  aii<l    Bar- 


THE  MBSSJAS  IS  THE  ORIENT.  893 

liebraBiis  interpret  the  "branch,"  or  "  bnd,"  in  its  literal 
sense  as  referring  to  Zorobabel,  while  Ensebius  refers  the 
literal  meaning  of  the  word  to  Jesus  the  highpriest; 
Cabnet  among  the  more  recent  writers  has  applied  the  literal 
sense  to  Zorobabel  or  Nehemias.  But  all  these  interpreters 
agree  in  applying  the  typical  sense  of  the  projihecies  to  the 
Messias. 

Zach.  III. 

'  And  the  Lord  showed  me  Jesus  the  highpriest  standing  before 
the  angel  of  the  Lord,  and  Satan  stood  on  his  right  hand  to  be  his 
adversary.  And  the  Lord  said  to  Satan:  The  Lord  rebuke  thee, 
O  Satan,  and  the  Lord  that  chose  Jerusalem  rebuke  thee;  is  not 

'  And  the  Lord  showed  me  Jesus.     It  appears   from  Is.  xxviii.  7  ; 

Jer  ii  8  ;  v.  81  ;  vi.  13;  viii  10,  etc.;  Os.  v.  1  ;  Mich.  iii.  11;  Soph, 
iii.  4,  etc  ,  that  the  corruption  of  the  Jewish  priesthood  had  been  the 
chief  cause  of  the  national  ruin  of  the  people  Since  the  prophet, 
after  describing  the  downfall  of  Israel's  enemies,  comes  to  predict  its 
restoration,  he  naturally  dwells  upon  the  renewed  priesthood,  because 
a  re.storation  of  the  latter  implies  the  national  re  establishment.  Hence, 
the  highpriest,  or  the  repre.sentative  of  the  priesthood,  stands  before 
the  angei  of  the  Lord,  the  guariian  angel  of  the  Hebrew  nation. 
Satan,  always  intent  on  impeding  the  work  of  the  priesthood,  stands 
at  the  highpriest's  right  hand.  The  angel,  who  is  identified  by  several 
commentators  with  St,  Michael  (cf  Rib.,  Lap.),  addresses  Satan  in 
words  of  indignation:  "  The  Lord  rebuke  thee."  To  show  his  ear- 
nestness, he  repeats  his  prayer  in  almost  the  same  words,  only  adding 
the  reasons  why  the  Lord  should  restrain  the  devil:  1.  The  Lord 
himself  has  chosen  Jerusalem  for  the  place  of  his  special  habitation, 
and  this  divine  choice  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  frustrated  ; 
2.  the  people  is  as  a  brand  plucked  out  of  the  fire,  having  suffered 
sufficiently  for  its  former  transgression  The  priesthood  having 
brought  about  this  national  ruin,  Jesus  is  properly  attired  in  filthy 
garments  The  latter  are  reunved  by  the  attending  angels  at  the 
bidding  of  their  superior,  the  guardian  angel  of  Israel,  who  explains 
to  the  highpriest  the  sy)nb:)lical  meaning  of  the  clean  attire  :  "  Be 
hold,  I  have  taken  away  thy  iniquity  and  have  clothed  thee  with 
change  of  garments  "  Finally,  even  the  mitre  is  restored  to  the  high- 
prie.st,  as  in  Ezech.  xxi.  28  it  is  taken  away  from  him  as  a  sign  of  his 
rejection  This  headdress  is  according  to  the  Hebrew  text  rather  the 
royal  diadem  than  the  priestly  mitre  alone  For  after  the  restoration 
of  the  theocracy  the  highpriest  will  have  to  exercise  a  great  deal  of 
civil  authority  Interpreters,  however,  generally  render  the  Hebrew 
word  by  "  mitre."  Another  difference  between  the  Hebrew  text  and 
the  common  versions  deserves  notice  :  according  to  the  former  it  is 
the  prophet  who  commands  the  mitre  to  be  replaced,  while  according 
to  tlie  latter  the  angel  himself  gives  this  order  The  context  de- 
mauds  that  the  angel  should  be  the  speaker,  since  the  prophet  can 


394  THE  MKSSIAMC  NAMKS. 

tliis  ,1  hnuid  iiliicked  out  of  the  fire  ?  And  Jesus  was  clothed  with 
filthy  giirnients,  and  he  stood  before  the  face  of  the  angel.  AVho 
answered  and  said  to  tiiem  tliat  stood  before  him,  saying:  Take 
away  the  filthy  garments  from  him.  And  he  said  to  him:  Be- 
hold, I  have  taken  away  thy  iniquity,  and  have  clothed  thee  with 
change  of  garments.  And  he  said:  Put  a  clean  mitre  upon  his 
liead.  And  they  put  a  clean  mitre  upon  his  head  and  clothed 
him  with  garments,  and  the  angel  of  the  Lord  stood.  And 
the  angel  of  the  Lord  protested  to  Jesus,  saying:  Thus  saith  the 
Lord  of  hosts :  If  tiiou  wilt  walk  in  my  ways,  and  keep  my 
charge,  thou  also  shalt  judge  my  house,  and  shalt  keep  my  courts, 
and  I''  will  give  thee  some  of  them  that  are  now  present  here  to 
walk  with  thee.  Hear,  O  Jesus,  thou  highpriest,  thou  and  thy 
friends,  that  dwell  before  thee,  for  they  are '  portending  men;  for 
lu'hold,  I   will  bring  my  servant  the  Orient.     For*  I)elio]d,  the 

liiudly  be  conceived  as  commanding  the  angels.  The  IjXX.  version 
omits  tlif  clause  which  (Ictoriuiiics  the  sjieaker,  so  that  the  omission 
itself  iiulicjites  the  angel  :is  the  speaker  ;  the  C'haldee  version  has  the 
first  ])erson  like  the  incseiit  Ilebiew  text. 

-'  Will  give  thee  some  of  them.  >'in(e  the  restoration  of  the  ])riest 
liood  foiius  the  iiiiici]  ill  ]iait  of  the  restoration  of  the  theociacy,  it  is 
(leseribed  more  niiuutely  in  the  following  verses  :  a.  its  demands 
and  duties  are  stated  ;  //.  its  ty))ical  significance  is  indicated  ;  c.  its 
final  ])()iiit  of  ])erfec-tioii  is  described.  As  to  the  ])assage  "  I  will  give 
thee  some  .  ..  ."  commentators  ditTer  in  their  exjdanations  :  1.  "  1  will 
give  thee  guardians  out  of  the  nundier  of  the  angels  who  are  now 
])resent  here"  (Jerome,  Cyril,  liibera,  Sanchez,  Lajiide,  Mariana, 
Menochius,  C'alniet,  tSchegg,  Lyranus,  Tirinus,  Ilengstenberg,  etc.). 
The  angels  will  therefore  assist  the  jiriest  in  the  diseharge  of  his 
onerous  and  most  im]iortant  duties,  in  the  administration  of  the  tem- 
])le,  and  the  right  direction  of  the  Jewish  conuiuinity  synd)olically 
represented  by  \\\v  tcnijile.  2.  "I  will  give  thee  ])laces  to  walk  or 
walks  among  these  that  stand  by,  i.e.,  after  thy  death  thou  shalt 
walk  among  the  angels"  (cf.  ('bald.,  'frochon,  Mariana,  lloubigant, 
Keil).  3.  "I  will  give  thee  a  jjjace  of  access  among  tliise  that  stand 
by,  thou  shalt  have  an  ea.sy  way  of  communing  with  (iod  and  the 
angels"  (Uevised  Version).  4.  "I  will  give  thee  guides  among  them 
that  are  now  present  here;"  this  rendering  is  unknown  among  the  an- 
cients. 5.  "  I  will  ])lace  thy  ofTs]>ring  among  them  that  are  ])resent 
hei-e  "  (Theodotion,  'f'heodore  of  Mo])sui'sti!i,  etc.).  The  first  of  these 
iiiter]iretations  is  the  most  jirobable  in  itself,  and  is  supjiorted  l)y  the 
Itest  autliority  (besides  the  above  authors,  lAX.,  Syriac,  Chal.). 

'  They  are  portending  men.  lM>r  men  of  type  are  they,  or  men  of 
fori'cast  aretliev.  'I'lie  priests'  intercessory  otlice  makes  them  types  of 
the  great  intercessor;  or  those  men  can  look  onwaid  and  find  in  these 
]»resent  dis))ensations  of  deliverance  and  restoration  a  type  of  the  re- 
<lem]itioM  wliicli  will  come  to  us  throiiirh  the  "  Hi-aiich  '"  or  the  "  Hud." 

^Behold   the   stone  that  I   have  laid   before  Jesus.     Kxi>lanations ; 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  TEE  ORIENT.  395 

stone  that  I  have  laid  before  Jesus/  upon  one  stone  there  are  seven 
eyes  Behold,  I  will  grave  the  graving  thereof,  saith  the  Lord  of 
hosts,  and  I  will  take  away  the  iniquity  of  that  land  in  one  day. 
In  that  day,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts,  every  man  shall  call  his 
friend  under  the  vine  and  under  the  figtree. 

1.  The  stone  is  the  Messias  (Jerome,  Lyranus,  Tirinus,  Pusey,  etc.). 
But  this  explanation  does  not  well  fit  into  the  context  ,  according  to 
it  the  passage  reads  "  I  will  bring  my  servant  the  Orient,  for  be 
hold  the  stone  (the  Messias)  that  I  have  laid  before  Jesus  ..."  The 
phrases  that  follow  are  equally  against  interpreting  the  "stone'  as 
the  Messias  2  The  foundation  stone  of  the  temple  is  meant  (Neu 
maun,  Henderson,  Wright)  But  this  view  is  untenable,  because  the 
foundation  of  the  temple  had  been  laid  before  Zacharias  uttered  the 
prophecy  3  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  the  prophet  speaks  of  the  key 
stone  of  the  temjile,  or  about  a  particular  precious  stone  on  the 
attire  of  the  hi^hprie.st  For  there  is  nowhere  any  ground  for  as- 
signing such  a  special  importance  to  either  of  these  stones.  4.  It  re 
mains  then  that  we  must  adheie  to  the  view  that  considers  the  stone  as 
repre.senting  the  Jewish  theocracy  (Schegg,  Reinke,  Trochon,  Knaben 
bauer,  Keil,  Chambers,  etc  )  The  whole  context  seems  to  demand 
such  an  explanation  ,  the  circumstance  that  in  other  passages  the 
Messias  is  indicated  by  the  stone  does  not  oppose  our  inlerjjretation, 
since  the  same  object  may  serve  as  the  symbol  of  several  ])erHons  or 
mysteries.  And,  what  is  more,  the  theocracy  may  be  called  the  Mcs 
sias  in  the  same  manner  in  which  we  now  say  that  tlie  Church  is 
('hrist  or  his  mystical  b.xly  (cf    Ps   cxvii   22  ;   I.  Pet.  ii.  7,  etc  ). 

'"  Upon  one  stone  there  are  seven  eyes  Explanations  .  1.  There 
appeared  seven  eyes  engraven  upon  the  stone  before  the  highi)ricst 
But  iv  10  supposes  that  the  eyes  are  to  be  there  in  the  future 
2  The  seven  eyes  repre.sent  the  divine  providence,  or  the  seven  gifts 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  (cf  Apoc  v  6  ,  Is  xi  2  ff  )  The  number  seven 
indicates  the  perfection  and  the  completeness  of  the  providential  care 
and  of  the  spiritual  gifts  (Theodotion,  Sanchez,  Menochius,  Trochon, 
etc  )  But  this  explanation  does  not  fit  as  well  into  the  context  as  it 
should,  nor  is  the  parallelism  with  the  passage  in  the  Apocalyjise  fully 
to  the  point  3.  According  to  others  the  passage  alludes  to  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  Persians,  who  call  the  seven  highest  ministers 
of  state  the  eyes  of  the  king  (cf.  Suidas,  Hesychius,  Tirinus,  Calmet, 
Reinke)  If  it  be  added  that  in  iv.  10  the  seven  eyes  of  the  Lord  are  said 
to  run  to  and  fro  through  the  whole  earth,  and  that  in  Apoc  v  0  the 
seven  spirits  of  the  Lord  are  represented  as  sent  out  into  the  whole 
earth,  it  appears  probable  that  in  the  ])rophecy  too  the  seven  eyes 
symb;)lize  the  seven  angels  who  stand  before  the  Lord  (Knabenbauer , 
cf  Ribera,  Lapide,  Calmet,  Trochon).  The  seven  angels  are,  therefore, 
watching  over  the  development  of  the  Synagogue,  the  care  of  which 
has  been  given  to  .lesus,  and  in  him  to  the  priesthood.  It  may  be 
added  that  those  who  see  a  symbol  of  the  Messias  in  the  stone  inter- 
pret the  words  "  1  will  grave  the  graving  thereof"  as  referring  to  the 
passion  and  death  of  Christ.  This  can,  however,  be  done  only  by  way 
of  accommodation. 


396  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 


Zacii.  VI.  9-15. 

And  the  word  of  tlic  Lord  came  to  me,  saying:  Take"  of 
them  of  the  Captivity,  of  Iloldai,  and  of  Tobias,  and  of  Idaias  ; 
and  tliou  shalt  come  in  tliat  day,  and  slialt  go  into  the  honse  of. 
Jo.sias,  tlie  son  of  Sophonias,  who  came  ont  of  Babylon.  And 
tliou  slialt  lake  gold  and  silver,  and  shalt  make  crowns,  and  thou 
shalt  sot  them  on  the  liead  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Jo.sedee  the  high- 
priest,  and  thou  shalt  speak  to  him,  saying:  Thus  saith  the  Lord 
of  hosts,  saying:    'Behold  a  man,  the  Orient  is  his  name,  and 

*  Take  of  them  of  the  Captivity,  tiod  wishes  to  show  how  accei)tal)le 
are  the  Israchte  oilViings  for  the  l)enefit  oi'  the  teiuple.  Hence  they 
are  set  in  tlie  very  crown  of  the  higlipriest.  The  text  sjieaks  about 
crowns  in  the  jilural  or  dual,  not  about  a  single  crown,  a.  Some 
have  suiii)ose(l  that  the  higlqiricst  was  to  wear  two  crowns  ;  h.  others 
have  suggested  that  the  crowns  were  to  represent  the  roval  and  the 
prie.stly  dignities,  but  it  seems  that  this  union  would  he  more  filly 
symbolizecl  by  two  crowns  joined  into  one  after  the  manner  of  a  tiara  ; 
r.  others  again  are  of  opinion  that  the  jjlural  is  used  in  this  ))assage 
for  the  sole  ])urpose  of  indicating  the  magnilicence  of  the  crown  ;  but 
this  last  view  ajipears  to  have  no  better  foundation  than  the  C'haldee 
version. 

'  Behold  a  man,  the  Orient  is  his  name.  After  ])lacing  the  crowns  on 
the  head  of  the  high])riest  the  ])rophet  is  warned  to  address  .b'sus, 
reminding  him  of  the  antityjx'  of  whom  he  and  his  I'ollowers  are 
only  a  sign  For  it  has  been  shown  above  that  the  Orient  is  a  i)ro])er 
nam<!  of  the  Messias.  Then  various  details  concerning  the  Messias 
are  added  :  1.  Under  hhn  shall  he  si)ring  up,  i.e.,  under  him  shall 
.spring  up  a  multitude  of  faithful  believers  (Jerome,  liibera.  Lajjide, 
Pressel  Cyril),  or  he  shall  be  born  in  a  lowly  condition,  and  acquire 
the  full  dignity  which  belongs  to  the  Me.ssias  little  by  little  (Keinke, 
Kiial)enbauer,  etc.).  This  latti'r  intei'jjretation  appears  to  lie  the  more 
j)rolialile  one,  since  the  Orient  is  the  subject  in  the  preceding  and  in 
the  I'ollowing  clause.  2.  lie  shall  build  a  temple  to  the  Lord,  yea,  he 
shall  build  a  tem])le  to  the  Lord.  The  jirophet  shows  by  rejieating 
this  second  prediction  of  the  Messias  how  iniiK)rtant  the  temple,  tlie 
real  temjile,  or  tlu^  ("luirch,  is  in  the  sight  of  (Jod.  The  higlipriest  is 
then-rore  implicitly  warm-d  to  erect  the  tyjiical  teiu])Ie  w  illi  all  care 
and  solicituile  (cf.  Han.  ix.  '24;  I.  ("or.  iii.  !)).  15.  !!»'  shall  bear  the 
glory,  and  shall  sit  and  rule  u|)on  liis  throne.  After  the  «'rection  of 
the  real  tein])ic.  after  tlie  institution  of  the  Chiindi.  the  Messias  shall 

be  gloritied,  and   he  shall  "I'liy  ''i'"  throne  which    is  his  in  a  most 

peculiar  way  (II  Kings  vii.  Ki ;  Ps.  Ixxxviii.  liS  ;  K/.ech.  xxi.  2(5, 
27  ;  xvi.,  xvii.  2'i,  24  ;  Luke  i.  82).  4.  li(?  shall  be  a  jiriest  upon  his 
throne,  and  the  counsel  ol  jieace  shall  be  between  them  both.  It  may 
be  asked  who  are  the  two  between  whom  tliere  shall  be  peace. 
Answers:  n.  There  shall  be  peace  between  Zorobabel  and  .lesus  the 
higlipriest.     '{"his  is  tlie  explanation  of  those  who  see  in  the  pas.sage 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  ORIENT.  397 

under  him  shall  he  spring  up,  and  shall  build  a  temple  to  the 
Lord.  Yea,  he  shall  build  a  temple  to  the  Lord,  and  he  shall 
bear  the  glory,  and  shall  sit  and  rule  upon  his  throne;  and  ho 
shall  be  a  priest  upon  his  throne,  and  the  counsel  of  peace  shall 
l)e  between  them  botli.  And^  the  crowns  shall  be  to  Helem,  and 
Tobias,  and  Idaias,  and  to  Hem,  the  son  of  Sophonias,  a  memorial 
in  the  temple  of  the  Lord.  And  they  that  are  far  off  shall  come, 
and  shall  build  in  the  temple  of  the  Lord,  and  you  shall  know 
that  the  Lord  of  hosts  sent  me  to  you.  But  this  shall  come  to 
pass,  if  hearing  you  will  hear  the  voice  of  the  Lord  your  God. 

Corollary. 

The  chief  consolation  which  the  contemporaries  of  the 

prophet  might  draw  from  these  predictions  was  a  divine 

assurance  that  the  temple  would  surely  be  restored,  and 

that   another   great    offspring   of   David's   or   Zorobabel's 

family  would  rule  in  it. 

ii  literal  reference  to  Zorobabel.  h.  There  shall  be  peace  between  the 
royal  and  the  sacerdotal  dignities  (Ribera,  Sanchez,  Lapide,  Meno- 
chlus,  Tirinus,  Uordon,  and  common).  But  this  explanation  im- 
presses one  as  being  far-fetched,  c.  There  shall  be  peace  l)etween 
the  Jews  and  the  (ientiles  (Sa).  This  interpretation  gives  a  very  sat- 
isfactory meaning  to  the  passage,  but  neither  Jews  nor  Gentiles  are 
mentioned  in  the  context,  d.  There  shall  be  peace  between  the  Jews 
who  have  returned  to  the  promised  land  and  the  Jews  who  have  re- 
mained in  Babylon  (Schegg).  But  the  context  has  nothing  about 
such  a  division  of  the  Jewish  community,  e.  There  shall  be  peace 
between  the  Messias  and  Jesus,  between  the  type  and  the  antitype 
(Knabenbauer).  According  to  this  view  the  highpriest  is  admon- 
ished to  fulfil  the  duties  of  his  office  in  a  manner  fully  conformable 
with  the  perfection  of  the  Messianic  priesthood.  This  exijlanation 
too  is  open  to  several  exceptions. 

•*  And  the  crowns  shall  he.  The  prophet  concludes  by  securing  a 
perpetual  memorial  to  the  liberality  of  Helem,  Tobias,  and  Idaias, 
who  had  brought  the  Babylonian  contributions  for  the  erection  of  the 
temple  (cf.  verse  10),  and  to  the  hospitality  of  Josias,  the  son  of 
Soplionias,  in  whose  house  the  Babylonian  envoys  bad  found  shelter. 
For  what  is  rendered  "to  Hem,  the  son  of  Sophonias,"  must  accord- 
in<;-  to  the  Hebrew  text  be  translated  "to  the  kindness  of  the  sou  of 
So|)houias. "  The  memorial  cong"sts  in  keeping  the  crowns  in  the* 
temi)le  treasury,  or  according  to  the  Talmudic  tradition,  in  the  window 
of  the  temple  porch.  Induced  by  this  manifestation  of  the  divine 
favor,  many  of  those  who  have  been  led  far  away  into  cai)tivity 
shall  come  and  offer  gifts  for  the  building  of  the  temple  (cf.  Kom. 
i.  5;  xvi.  11),  20;  Eph.  ii.  13).  We  may  infer  from  the  ty])ical 
sense  of  the  priesthood  that  the  conversion  of  the  (ientiles  too  is  here 
predicted. 


398  TUE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE   SON   OF  MAN.     Dan.  vii. 

IXTHODUCTIOX. 

1.  Division  of  the  Prophecy. — The  chaiiter  consists  of 
two  pai'ts,  a  vision  of  Daniel  (vv.  1-15)  and  its  explanation 
(vv.  lG-28).  The  vision  is  of  fonr  boasts  emerging  from  the 
sea:  a  lion  with  eagle's  wings,  a  bear,  a  leopard  witli  fonr 
wings  and  four  heads,  and  ;i  fourth  Ijeast  with  j)()werful  iron 
teeth,  desti'oyingall  things, and  with  ten  horns,  among  which 
another  little  horn  springs  up,  speaking  2)roud  things,  l)efore 
which  three  of  the  other  horns  are  rooted  out  (vv.  1-8).  The 
second  part  of  the  vision  is  of  a  celestial  assize:  the  Al- 
mighty, rej)resented  as  an  aged  man,  is  seated  on  a  throne  of 
flame  and  surroujuled  by  myriads  of  attendants;  the  fourth 
beast  is  slain ;  one  like  unto  a  son  of  num  conies  in  the  clouds 
of  heaven  into  the  presence  of  the  Almighty,  and  receives 
from  him  a  universal  and  never-ending  dominion  (vv.  9-15). 
The  second  part  of  the  chapter  explains  the  visioji:  the 
four  beasts  signify  four  kingdoms;  the  fourth  will  be  more 
powerful  and  formidable  than  the  first  three,  but  will  be 
split  up  into  ten  kingdoms,  and  finally  an  eleventh  will 
arise  waging  fearful  war  against  the  men  and  the  kingdom 
of  God,  till  it  shall  be  destroyed  by  the  power  of  the  Most 
High.  Then  the  people  of  the  saints  of  the  A[ost  High 
will  receive  ihtminiou  over  the  entire  earth. 

2.  The  Time  of  the  Prophecy  is  indicated  in  tlu-  text : 

it  is  given  in  the  lirst  year  of  Belsha/zar  (Baltassar).  Kut 
there  is  (he  grt-atest  (lilVieiill  v  with  regard  to  the  (|uestion  of 
lielslni/.zar's  identity.      lie   is  named    king  in  Han.  viii.  1; 


THE  MES8IAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  MAN.  399 

king  of  Babylon  in  vii.  1 ;  king  of  tlie  Clialdees  in  v.  30. 
In  the  second  of  these  passages  Daniel  speaks  of  Bclsliaz- 
zar's  first  year;  in  the  first  passage  of  his  third  year.  We 
find  a  king  of  a  similar  name  mentioned  in  Bar.  i.  11,  12. 
But  outside  of  these  passages  there  occurs  no  Babylonian 
king  of  this  name  in  either  inspired  or  profane  sources. 
Hence  the  most  diverse  opinions  as  to  Belshazzar's  identity 
have  been  advanced  and  defended: 

a.  Belshazzar  is  identical  with  Naboned,  the  last  Baby- 
lonian king  before  the  city's  capture  by  Cyrus  (Flavins 
Josephus,  Jerome,  Hengstenberg,  Auberlen,  llavely). 
Reasons:  a.  Dan.  v.  30,  31  (Heb.  v.  30;  vi.  1);  ft.  besides 
his  official  name  Nabunaliid,  the  last  king  of  Babylon 
might  have  a  family  name  like  that  of  his  son  Bel-sar- 
ussur,  by  which  he  might  be  known  to  the  Jews.  y.  The 
Assyrian  inscriptions  speak  of  Nabunahid's  son  under  the 
name  Bel-sar-ussur. 

b.  Belshazzar  is  identical  with  Laborosoarcliod,  or  La- 
])osardoch,  as  Josephus  writes  the  name  (>Scaliger,  Cal- 
visius,  Pererius,  Maldonatus,  Ebrard,  Delitzsch).  Reasons: 
a.  According  to  Jer.  xxvii.  7  the  nations  shall  serve 
Nebuchadnezzar  (Nabuchodonosor),  his  son,  and  his  son's 
son.  Now  Laborosoarcliod  was  the  son's  son  or  grandson  of 
Nebuchadnezzar.  Hence  he  was  the  last  Babylonian  king 
before  Cyrus,  ft.  The  appearance  of  the  queen  in  the 
liistory  of  Belshazzar  supposes  that  the  latter  was  very 
youthful;  the  same  conclusion  is  reached  from  Dan.  vi.  1, 
where  it  is  intimated  that  a  full-grown  man  took  the  place 
of  a  boy  in  the  royal  dignity.  Now  Berosus  (cf.  Jos.  c. 
A  p.  i.  20)  tells  us  that  Laborosoarcliod  reigned  only  nine 
months,  and  was  then  murdered  by  the  Babylonian  pat- 
riots, because  he  gave  all  the  signs  of  a  bad  character, 
though  he  was  still  a  boy.  y.  As  to  the  statement  of  Dan. 
viii.  1,  in  which  the  prophet  speaks  of  the  third  year  of 
Belshazzar,  the  patrons  of  this  second  view  contend  that 
Daniel  there  includes  the  years  of  Neriglissar,  Laboroso- 


400  rilE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

iircliod's  kiii.smjin,  wlio  wus  regent  in  liis  ])l!ioe.     There  is 
lumlly  need  to  jioint  out  the  falhicy  of  these  arguments. 

c.  Belshjizzjir  in  the  ])rophecies  of  Daniel  and  Baltassar 
occurring  in  liuruch  are  identical  witli  Evilmerodach,  the 
son  and  immediate  successor  of  Xebucliadnezzar  (Lajiide, 
Tirinus,  llofmann,  Ilaevernick,  Oliler,  Ilnpfeld,  Kiehuhr, 
Ziindel,  Keil,  Kranichleld,  Kliefoth,  Favre  d'Enviou). 
Iveasons:  (x.  Both  Daniel  and  Baruch  call  Belshazzar 
Neljuchadnezzar's  son,  and  this  testimony  is  confirmed  l)y 
several  otlier  inferences.  /?.  A  careful  reading  of  the  first 
four  chapters  of  the  prophet  leaves  on3  under  the  impres- 
sion that  Belshazzar  is  the  immediate  successor  of  Nehu- 
chadnezzar.  ;/.  B^rosus'  account  of  Evilmerodach  agrees 
exactly  witli  what  we  know  of  Belshazzar — of  his  luxury 
and  liis  cruel  tyranny.  6.  These  same  charactei'istics 
reiuli'r  tlie  aj)pearaiice  of  tlie  queen,  the  Median  ])rincess 
Amulica  :iiid  wife  of  Nebucliadnezzar,  quite  natui'al,  since 
Belsliazzar  hud  been  entirely  careless  about  business  affairs 
whicli  liad  liappened  under  his  predecessor,  e.  If  both 
Berosus  and  tlie  canon  of  Ptolema?us  assign  only  two 
years  to  Evilmerodach's  reign,  they  may  he  easily  so  di- 
vided as  to  give  us  three  calendar  years  (Dan.  viii.  1); 
besides,  the  canon  of  Syncellos  expressly  assigns  three 
years  to  the  reign  of  Evilmerodach.  Boscawen  has  found 
among  the  Egibi-tablets  inscriptions  dated  "  the  23d 
day  of  the  month  Kislev  of  the  tliird  year  of  Marduk-sar- 
ussur."  Now,  Marduk  is  identical  with  Merodach,  so  that 
Marduk-sar-ussur  and  Evilmerodach  (son  of  Merodach) 
are  in  all  probability  identical.  May  we  not  supi)ose  that 
Evilmerodach  assumed  this  name  only  when  he  ascended 
the  tlirone  on  account  of  tlie  Jewish  Messianic  ho])es  ? 
Ilis  attempt  to  identify  himself  with  the  Redeemer  ])rom- 
ised  by  the  Hebrew  prophets  would  well  exjilain  the  fact 
that  l^aiiiel  lias  avoided  the  use  of  tliat  name,  since  it 
must  have  been  a  true  abomination  in  the  eyes  of  the 
seer.  Z.  Both  Megasthenes  and  Berosus  relate  that 
Evilmerodacli  was  murdered,  so  tliat  Daniel's  account  of 


THE  MES8IAS  18  THE  SON  OF  MAN.  401 

Belshazzar's  end  agrees  with  the  narrative  of  the  historians. 
7/.  As  to  Dan,  v.  30,  31,  Daniel's  gift  of  prophecy  becomes 
even  more  striking,  if  we  suppose  that  he  predicted  not 
only  the  imminent  death  of  Belshazzar  but  also  the  far- 
off  fate  of  the  Babylonian  empire,  though  Cyrus  was  not 
yet  at  the  gates  of  the  city.  t9.  It  is  also  certain  that 
Naboned  named  his  second  son  Nebuchadnezzar  after  the 
great  king  who  had  boriie  that  name;  may  we  not  then 
supjjose  that  he  called  his  first  son  Belshazzar,  after 
Nebuchadnezzar's  son,  who  was  reigning  at  the  time  of 
Belshazzar's  birth  ? 

(I.  The  Belshazzar  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  is  the  Bel-sar- 
ussiir  of  the  Babylonian  inscriptions,  the  first-born  son  of 
Naboned,  who  was  habalsarru  or  co-regeut,  even  in  the  life- 
time of  his  fatlier.  It  must,  however,  be  noted  tliat  even  if 
this  view  be  followed,  the  Baltassar  of  Baruch  is  Evilmero- 
dach,  the  son  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (Delattre,  Dilsterwald, 
Duncker,  Sclirader,  etc.).  Reasons:  a.  From  the  inscrip- 
tions it  is  not  only  certain  that  Naboned's  first-born  son 
was  called  Belshazzar,  but  it  is  equally  certain  that  the 
father  was  esjjecially  interested  in  the  advancement  of  his 
first-born.  Belshazzar  commanded  the  army  in  Accad  even 
in  the  seventh  year  of  his  father's  reign,  who  stayed  at 
that  time  in  Teva.  Similar  reports  may  be  seen  in  the 
annals  of  the  ninth,  the  tenth,  and  the  eleventh  years  of 
Naboned's  reign,  fi.  The  term  habalsarru,  by  which  Bel- 
shazzar is  known,  must  be  regarded  as  a  technical  term  for 
"  viceroy."  In  this  manner  we  remove,  or  satisfactorily 
explain,  a  number  of  difficulties:  y.  In  the  taking  of  the 
city  by  Cyrus,  no  mention  is  made  of  Belshazzar,  because, 
being  at  the  head  of  the  army,  he  must  have  been  slain 
among  the  first.  That  his  death  was  a  well-known  fact 
may  be  inferred  from  the  circumstance  that  under  the 
reign  of  Darius  Hystaspis  a  pretender  gave  himself  out  to 
be  Naboned's  second  son,  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  as  such  he 
claimed  the  right  to  the  Babylonian  throne.  6.  Again, 
Jeremias  had  predicted  that  God  would  give  rule  over  the 


402  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

iKitions  to  Nebucliailnezziir,  liissoii,  uiid  liis  son's  son.  Now, 
iicc'oi'diiig  to  Herodotus  (i.  18(J-1S8),  Naboiied's  niotlicr 
wjis  a  person  of  extraordinary  political  inii)ortanco.  Know- 
ing that  Naboned  himself  did  not  Ix'lonif  to  the  royal 
family  of  the  Babylonian  kings,  his  mother,  or,  according 
to  otiiers,  his  wife,  must  have  been  the  source  of  his  right 
to  the  throne.  She  must  therefore  have  been  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  great  Nebuchadnezzar,  so  that  lielshazzar  was 
really  the  great  monarch's  grandson  (or  great-grandson). 
It  must  not  be  inferred  from  this  that  the  queen  mentioned 
at  the  baiuiuet  of  Helshazzar  is  the  same  as  Naboned's 
mother  or  wife;  for  we  know  that  tiie  latter  had  died 
before  the  time  of  the  banquet,  on  the  fifth  day  of  Nisan 
in  the  ninth  year  of  Naljoned.  'JMie  queen  mentioned  by 
Daniel  must  bo  either  Belshazzar's  wife,  or  perhaps  the 
wife  of  Naboned.  e.  There  is  another  fact  mentioned  in 
Dan.  V.  7  and  v.  I(i  which  is  fully  explained  by  the  present 
view.  BelsJKizzar  promised  him  who  should  satisfactorily 
interpret  the  vision  the  third  rank  in  the  kingtlom.  'J'he 
(piestion  naturally  presents  itself:  "Why  the'  third  ?" 
From  such  passages  as  Cieii.  xli.  40,  I.  Kings  xxiii.  IT,  and 
Esther  x.  3,  we  expect  that  the  successful  interpreter  will 
become  the  second  personage  in  the  realm.  If  we,  there- 
fore, suppose  that  Belshazzar  himself  was  the  second  })er- 
son  in  the  kingdom,  being  only  co-regent,  it  becomes 
clear  why  he  promises  the  third  place  to  the  successful 
interjireter.  C.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  if  Belshazzar 
was  or.ly  co-regent  he  could  not  be  called  king  of  Babylon. 
For  we  know  that  Nebuchadnezzar  was  called  king  of 
Babylon  at  a  time  when  his  father  was  certainly  still 
alive  (Dan.  i.  1;  Jcr.  xlvi.  ".').  Solomon  and  Assurbanipal 
too  bore  the  legal  title  during  their  fathers'  lifetime. 
Neriglissar  too  calls  himself  son  of  Bel-sum-isknn,  king  of 
Bal)ylon.  Now,  l)el-sum-iskun,  the  first-born  son  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, died  before  his  father,  lie  mnst,  therefore, 
have  borne  the  name  '*  king  of  Babylon  "  while  his  father 
still  lived  and  I'cigned  in  l)ai)ylon. 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  MAN.  403 

3.  Authenticity  of  the  Prophecy.— The  authenticity 
of  this  prophecy  must  be  specially  treated,  because  Daniel's 
enemies  have  impugned  it  in  a  special  manner.  Not  to 
mention  their  exception  that  it  contains  too  clear  a  de- 
scription of  future  events  to  be  written  at  the  time  of 
Daniel, — as  if  the  prophetic  prediction  of  the  future  were 
impossible, — they  explain  all  the  prophetic  visions  of  the 
book  in  such  a  manner  that  their  last  fulfilment  falls  in 
the  time  of  the  Machabees.  About  the  time  of  the  Mach- 
abees,  therefore,  the  second  part  of  Daniel,  beginning  with 
c.  vii.,  must  have  been  written.  This  manner  of  reasoning, 
besides  being  based  on  a  false  foundation— for  we  shall  see 
that  Daniel's  visions  do  not  terminate  at  the  period  of  the 
Machabees — is  directly  refuted  by  tiie  following  jiositive 
argument.  In  the  second  part  of  Daniel  we  recognize  the 
language  of  the  prophet,  his  peculiar  symbolism,  and  the 
manners  of  his  country.  On  the  other  liaiul,  no  one  at  the 
time  of  the  Machabees  can  be  assigned  who  could  have 
written  in  the  same  language'  used  the  same  symbols,  and 
imitated  the  Babylonian  manners  so  true  to  life.  Hence, 
the  second  part  of  Daniel  has  been  written  by  the  prophet 
Daniel. 

All  the  single  statements  implied  in  this  argument  rest 
on  a  solid  foundation,  a.  The  whole  second  part  of  Daniel, 
up  to  c.  xii.,  is  written  in  the  style  of  the  first  part;  c.  vii. 
in  particular  is  written  in  Chaldee,  as  are  several  of  the 
preceding  chapters.  Thus  the  Babylonian  people  could 
understand  the  prophetic  visions  of  Daniel  and  profit  by 
them  in  so  far  as  the  Gentile  world  was  permitted  to  be 
assisted  by  the  Hebrew  revelation.  Then,  c.  vii.  is  entirely 
parallel  to  the  explanation  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  in 
c.  ii. ;  c.  viii.  too  explains  certain  of  the  preceding  visions 
more  in  detail.  The  connection  between  the  first  and  the 
second  part  of  the  book  is,  therefore,  so  intimate  that  if 
the  first  part  is  admitted  to  be  authentic,  the  authenticity 
of  the  second  follows  as  a  matter  of  necessity.  Finally,  the 
Chaldee   dialect,  in  which  the  seventh  chapter  has  been 


404  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

written,  contains  forms  which  are  too  ancient  to  be  nsed 
by  an  author  of  a  hiter  period  (cf.  Baer  and  Delitzsch,  ed. 
Daniel,  Introductory  Remarks). 

h.  Then,  the  second  part  of  Daniel  has  an  entirely  Baby- 
lonian coloring.  It  is  wholly  different  from  the  literary 
productions  of  Isaias  and  Jeremias,  and  indeed  from  any- 
thing that  had  up  to  Daniel's  time  been  written  by  Hebrew 
authors.  It  may  have  been  imitated  after  Daniel's  time, 
but  there  was  nothing  in  existence  in  Hebrew  literature 
of  which  the  Hook  of  Daniel  might  be  an  imitation.  Eze- 
chiel's  writings  are  tlie  only  ones  that  can  in  any  way  be 
compared  with  Daniel's;  but  then  Kzociiid  too  wrote  in 
Babylon.  To  illustrate  what  we  have  said,  let  ns  draw  at- 
tention to  the  description  of  God  in  Dan.  vii.  In  the 
Psalms,  and  even  in  Isaias,  there  nniy  be  found  single  fig- 
ures and  meta})h(;rs  taken  from  human  qualities  and  prop- 
erties under  which  God  Almighty  is  rci)resented:  he  may 
be  seated  on  a  throne,  exercise  justice  or  mercy  or  power; 
but  nowhere  is  the  human  image  applied  to  God  in  its 
entirety  as  it  is  in  Dan.  vii.  Here  (Jod  is  the  Ancient  of 
days,  his  garments  are  white  as  snow,  and  his  hair  is  like 
clean  wool;  his  throne  is  brilliant  like  the  flame  of  fire, 
and  a  river  of  fire  issues  forth  from  the  throne,  and  flows 
majestically  before  it.  A  thousand  times  a  thousand  ser- 
vants attend  on  the  Ancient  of  days,  aiul  myriads  of  min- 
isters staml  before  him  while  he  holds  judgment.  All  this 
outward  splendor  surrounding  God's  majesty  is  easily  un- 
derstood if  the  Book  of  Daniel  was  written  in  Babylon; 
for  the  Babylonians  were  accustomed  to  the  greatest  dis- 
play on  the  part  of  their  kings,  and  needed  therxjfore  such 
a  magnificent  description  of  (Jod  in  order  to  conceive  a 
tru(!  idea  of  him.  Had  Dan.  vii.  been  written  in  Palestine, 
at  the  time  of  the  .Machabees,  such  a  representation  of  God 
would  not  only  have  been  unintelligible,  but  would  have 
been  highly  improiHT,  since  it  might  have  encouraged  the 
idolatrous  worshi[)  that  Antiochus  had  introduced  into  the 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  MAN.  405 

temple  by  erecting  in  it  a  statue  of  Jupiter  Olympius  (II. 
Mach.  vi.  2). 

c.  But  tlie  second  part  of  Daniel  does  not  merely  express 
the  language  and  thoughts  of  Daniel;  it  does  not  merely 
exhibit  Babylonian  coloring  in  its  description  of  even  the 
most  important  subject,  of  God  Almighty  himself,  but  it 
also  employs  symbols  and  figures  which  are  entirely  Baby- 
lonian in  their  nature,  and  which  cannot  be  understood  in 
their  full  significance  uiiless  tlie  Babylonian  symbolism  is 
understood.  To  return  once  more  to  the  description  that 
Daniel  gives  of  God,  it  is  in  exact  keeping  with  the  Baby- 
lonian statue  of  the  Ancient  of  days.  The  whiteness  of  the 
garments  may  still  be  recognized;  the  hair  of  its  head  en- 
tirely resembles  the  curls  of  wool,  while  its  beard  streams 
down  in  long  white  locks.  The  colossal  size  of  the  figure, 
its  position  on  wheels,  are  in  perfect  agreement  with 
Daniel's  description.  Then  again,  take  the  images  of  the 
beasts  that  the  prophet  introduces  where  he  describes 
the  divers  kingdoms:  t'le  winged  lion  is  a  common  Baby- 
lonian image,  called  in  the  text  oE  the  inscriptions  "nir- 
galli,"  or  lion  of  the  good  princij^le.  The  bear,  the  leopard^ 
the  ram,  are  one  and  all  animals  that  occur  again  and 
again  on  the  Babylonian  monuments.  Before  the  recovery 
of  the  Babylonian  literature  it  was  almost  impossible  to 
understand  the  meaning  of  the  liorns  in  the  proijhecies  of 
Daniel.  Tlie  beast  with  the  ten  horns,  for  instance,  ap- 
peared rather  a  piece  of  unbridled  fancy  than  an  image 
worthy  of  a  place  in  the  prophetic  visions.  But  now  all 
this  has  been  changed  :  in  the  Assyro-Chalilee  sculpture  we 
see  winged  lions  and  gods  and  heroes,  all  alike  represented 
with  horns.  Some  figures  have  four  horns,  others  six;  but 
in  all  cases  the  horns  are  a  real  ornament  to  the  figure, 
arranged  as  they  are  in  pairs,  and  in  regular  order.  In 
Palestine  our  late  explorers  have  searched  in  vain  for  traces 
and  vestiges  from  which  these  images  might  have  been 
borrowed.  The  Jordan  and  the  sea,  the  dew  of  heaven 
and  the  vineyards  of  Judea,  may  have  served  Isaias  and 


40G  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

Jeromias  us  the  sources  of  their  specisil  iiimgery;  but  there 
is  nothing  in  Palestine  that  could  have  suggested  the  sym- 
bols of  the  Jiook  of  Daniel.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  tlu; 
author  of  this  book  wrote  uiulei'  Assyrian  and  Uabylonian 
influence,  was  acquainted  wilii  Clialdee  myths  and  fables, 
and  wrote  for  a  })eo})le  tliat.must  I)e  impressed  by  figures 
and  symbols  taken  from  Babylonian  sources.  Daniel, 
therefore,  is  the  only  person  who  could  have  written  the 
whole  book  now  known  under  his  mime  (cf.  Fabre  d'Eu- 
vieu,  pp.  55G  tt". ;  Vigouroux,  "La  Bible  et  les  decouverts 
mod.,"  iv.  p.  494). 

4.  The  Prophecy  of  Daniel  has  not  been  taken 
FROM  Babylonian  Sources. — The  inscriptions  mention  a 
Silik-moulou-khi  as  nu'diator  between  the  gods  aiul  men. 
His  attributes  are  essentially  luiuuin,  and  exercised  for  the 
benefit  of  the  human  race.  Api)roaching  his  father  Ilea, 
the  Ancient  of  days,  he  prays  for  and  with  men.  Ilea  gives 
him  the  power  to  conquer  the  evil  spirits,  and  in  general  the 
enemies  of  man  (ef.  Lenornumt,  ''  Ija  Magic,"  sub  v.  kSiljk- 
moulou-khi).  A  later  hymn  ideutilics  this  mediator  with 
the  Chaldee-Babylonian  Merodach,  or  Mardouk,  and  the 
Assyrian  translators  of  the  magic  texts  thus  always  trans- 
late the  luime  "Silik-moulou-khi."' 

The  mediatorial  fuiuitious  of  the  Silik-moulou-khi  closely 
resemble  those  of  the  Sosiosh  in  the  most  ancient  texts  of 
the  Zoroastrian  religion,  and  those  of  Mithra  in  the  Acha?- 
menian  dynasty.  Mithra  means  '*  friend,"  and  this  is  the 
cfiuivalent  of  Silik-moulou-khi,  wbiidi  signilies  *'  he  who 
disposes  good  for  men."  Now  M.  Nicolas  (Des  doctrines 
religieuses  des  Juifs,  p.  270)  maintains  that  these  mytho- 
logical fables  were  precisely  the  sources  from  which  Daniel 
drew  his  predi(!tions.  "  Change  the  names  in  the  Mazdi-an 
drama,"  the  author  says,  "and  you  will  fancy  yourself  read- 
ing a  Jewish  apocalypse.  There  are  resemblances  ulTect- 
ing  the  minor  points  of  detail.  The  fifth  monarchy  of 
Daniel  corresi)()uds  to  the  fifth  dynasty  founded  by  the 
liberator  Sosiosh.     Tiie  ])rince  of  the  evil  s])irits  who  i)laces 


THE  MES8IAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  MAK.  407 

himself  at  the  head  of  the  idohitrous  jDeoi^le  to  fight  against 
the  chosen  people  of  God  resembles  greatly  the  prince  of 
darkness  leading  the  Devas  and  the  imj^ure  iiations  against 
tlie  prince  of  light  and  his  worshippers.  The  Messianic 
reign  of  a  thousand  years  recalls  the  'hazare/or  similar 
period  of  the  two  precursors  (Oshedar-Bami  and  Oshedar- 
Mah)  of  the  modern  liberator.  And  in  the  Jewish  apoca- 
lypse as  in  the  Mazdean  eschatology,  a  resurrection  of  the 
dead  is  placed  at  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  the 
deliverer  and  of  the  proclamation  of  a  new  law."  From 
these  parallel  features  the  author  infers:  "The  doctors  of 
the  Synagogue,  without  absolutely  intending  it,  without 
perhaps  being  altogether  conscious  of  their  act,  recalled 
Persian  opinions  to  aid  them  in  the  explanation  of  the 
Messianic  expectation  of  their  fathers." 

A  little  reflection  will  show  that  the  above  inferences 
are  not  entirely  legitimate:  1.  They  imply  that  the  proph- 
ecies of  Daniel  have  been  written  at  a  comparatively  recent 
date,  at  the  Machabean  period,  for  instance.  Now  it  has 
been  already  shown  that  this  supposition  is  not  admissible. 
2.  Even  if  we  were  to  admit  the  late  authorship,  it  would 
be  most  improbable  that  at  that  late  date  the  Jews  should 
have  had  recourse  to  the  mythology  of  an  extinct  power  in 
order  to  explain  their  own  national  teachings,  for  which 
they  had  repeatedly  risked  life  and  liberty.  3.  It  is  im- 
possible to  explain  the  doctrines  of  either  Hebrew  or  Per- 
sian system  satisfactorily,  if  imitation,  reproduction,  or 
a(hiptation  are  the  ultimate  cause  of  their  presence  in  either 
creed.  4.  The  presentiments  and  predictions  fouiul  among 
the  IJabylonians  and  Persians  are  nothing  but  a  dim  and 
floating  vision  of  a  better  futui'e,  with  nothing  in  tlie  pnst 
or  present  to  which  they  can  attach  themselves;  they  are, 
therefore,  destitute  of  moral  power  and  practical  results. 
But  Daniel's  Messianic  doctrine  is  living,  coherent,  and  in 
keeping  with  tlie  whole  Hebrew  system  of  Messianic  pre- 
dictions and  expectations.  5.  Finally,  it  is  sufticient  to  put 
side  by  side  the  fabulous  and  extravagant  myths  of  tlie  Per- 


408  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

sians  with  tlie  sober  uiul  earnest  propliecies  of  the  Hebrew 
seer  in  order  to  be  convinced  of  tlieir  distinct  origin. 
Compare,  for  instance,  Daniel's  abomination  of  desolation, 
his  decreed  rnin  and  downfall  with  the  Mazdeaii  torrents 
of  blood,  powerfnl  enough  to  turn  mill-wheels,  or  with  the 
Persian  comet  Ciurzshehr  preci]iitating  itself  on  the  earth, 
and  making  men,  both  i)ure  and  impure,  pass  through  a 
fiery  stream  of  molten  metal. 

5.  Messianic  Character  of  Daniel's  Prophecy.— The 
reference  of  Daniel's  propliecy  to  the  ^lessias  is  ])rincipally 
inferred  from  its  announcement  of  the  "  son  of  man."  To 
prove  that  this  latter  term  is  a  Messianic  name  is  to  estab- 
lish the  Messianic  character  of  the  whole  prediction.  1. 
The  first  proof  for  the  reference  of  the  "  son  of  man  "  to 
the  Messias  may  be  based  on  Old  Testament  j)assages  in 
which  God's  coming  is  connected  with  phenomena  similar 
to  those  accompanying  the  advent  of  the  son  of  man :  Ex. 
xiii.  21,  22;  xiv.  24;  Ps.  civ.  3;  Nah.  1,  3;  Is.  xix.  1;  xiv. 
14;  Ex.  xvi.  10;  xix.  1);  xxiv.  10;  xxxiii.  9;  xxxiv.  .5; 
Lev.  xvi.  2;  Num.  ix.  lo;  x.  154;  xi.  25;  Deut.  xxxi.  1'); 
Ps.  xvii.  10;  xcvi.  2  If.;  III.  Kings  viii.  10-12;  II.  Par.  vi. 
I;  Ezech.  i.  4;  x.  3,  etc.  Besides  these  passages  in 
which  God's  appearance  is  described  as  resenil)ling  that 
of  the  son  of  man,  we  may  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that 
according  to  the  Old  Testament  prophecies  universal 
dominion  belongs  to  the  Messias:  Gen.  xlix.  10;  Ps.  ii.  6; 
xliv.  .5  f. ;  Ixxi.  1  f. ;  Is.  xi.  10;  xlix.  (i:  liii.  11;  Jer.  xxiii. 
."3;  XXX.  21;  Ezech.  xxxiv.  23;  Afich.  v.  4,  etc.  Now  ac- 
cording to  Daniel,  all  powiM"  and  doniiiiiini  over  all  the  na- 
tiojis  and  tribes  of  tlic  earth  is  given  to  the  '*  sf)n  of  man." 
lie  is  therefore  ich'iitical  with  the  Messias  o^  the  other 
pro|thccies. 

2.  That  tlic  "  son  of  man  "  is  id(*ntical  with  the  Mes.sias 
is  still  more  palciit  tVoiii  lh(>  New 'I'estament.  The  expres- 
sion occurs  not  less  than  S2  times  in  the  (Jospels:  in  that 
ol'  Matthew,  30  times;  in  that  of  Mark.  14  times;  in  that 
of   Liilsc.   2()  limes;  in   tlial   of  .loliii,    12   times.      Hesides, 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  MAN.  409 

the  expression  occurs  in  Acts  vii.  55  and  in  Apoc.  i.  13; 
xiv.  14.  It  is  liardly  probable  that  the  New  Testament 
should  use  this  expression  so  often  in  the  same  meaning, 
applying  it  invariably  to  Jesus  Clirist,  Avithout  ever  indi- 
cating that  it  has  in  Daniel  a  diiferent  signification,  had 
Daniel  really  used  it  in  a  different  meaning.  But  more 
than  this:  Jesus  expressly  applies  Daniel's  description  of 
the  "  son  of  man"  to  himself  where  he  speaks  about  the 
last  judgment:  Matt.  xxiv.  30;  Mark  xiii.  20;  cf.  Apoc.  i. 
7,  and  especially  where  he  stands  before  the  judgment  of 
Caiphas  and  gives  solemn  testimony  of  his  Messiasship, 
Matt.  xxvi.  63,  G4;  cf.  Act.  vii.  58.  It  is  therefore  certain 
beyond  all  reasonable  doubt  that  the  New  Testament  views 
the  expression  "  son  of  man  "  as  a  peculiarly  Messianic  title. 

3.  The  reference  of  the  "  son  of  man  "  to  the  Messias  is 
also  evident  from  the  Book  of  Enoch,  xli.  1-3.  Even  an 
author  so  little  open  to  suspicion  as  Schiirer  has  it  (The 
Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ,  II.  iii.  p.  09) : 
"  Further,  the  objection  based  upon  the  circumstance  that, 
according  to  Matt.  xvi.  13-10,  John  xii.  34,  the  expres- 
sion '  son  of  man '  was  not  as  yet  a  current  designation 
for  the  Messias  in  the  time  of  Christ,  whereas  it  is  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  this  sense  in  the  allegories  (of  the  Book 
of  Enoch),  is  without  force.  For  we  are  by  no  means  at 
liberty  to  infer  from  those  passages  that  the  expression 
'son  of  man '  was  not  at  that  time  currently  in  use  as  a 
Messianic  title.  In  the  case  of  the  passage  in  John  this 
inference  is  based  simply  u^jon  false  exegesis.  The  passage 
in  Matthew  again  is  disposed  of  by  the  circumstance  that, 
in  its  original  form  as  preserved  in  Mark  viii.  37;  Luke  ix. 
18,  the  expression  '  son  of  man  '  does  not  occur  at  all.''  The 
Sibylline  oracles  too  apply  the  expression  "  son  of  man  " 
to  the  Messias;  for  in  lib.  iii.  we  have  nothing  but  a  para- 
phrase of  the  passage  in  Daniel  (cf.  Diisterwald,  p.  179): 

y^ei  ev   vecpeA)]   Ttpo^  a(pSiTnv   acpdiToS  aino? 

ev   do^ij  XpidTOb   rri)  r^   a  j^iwoai   a  yyeXiTypai 

Kai   Kadiaei  k.t.X. 


410  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

4.  For  the  testimonies  of  the  Fathers  concerning  the 
real  meaning  of  the  expression  "  son  of  man,"  we  refer  our 
reader  to  the  passages  indicated  in  Kilber's  Analysis  Biblica, 
ed.  II.  i.  4G5.  It  appears  from  tiiese  testimonies  as  well  as 
from  the  views  expressed  by  the  scholastics  and  by  the  more 
recent  theologians  that  Christian  tradition  is  practically 
unanimous  in  considering  "  the  sou  of  man  "  as  a  Messianic 
title. 

5.  Considering  this  agreement  between  the  Old  and  the 
New  Testament,  between  the  apocryphal  and  the  Christian 
tradition  regarding  the  meaning  of  the  expression  "son  of 
man,"  it  cannot  astonish  us  to  find  tliat  Jewish  tradition 
too  harmonizes  with  these  religious  sources.  The  Talmud 
(Sanhedrin,  fol.  38,  col.  2;  cf.  Ilagigah,  fol.  14,  col.  1)  has 
the  following  comment  on  Dan.  vii.  9 :  "  What  will  this 
say  ?  (the  placing  of  the  thrones).  One  throne  for  himself, 
and  one  for  David,  those  are  tlie  words  of  Kabbi  Akiba. 
Said  to  him  Kabbi  Jose:  Akiba,  how  long  wilt  thou  render 
the  Shechinah  profane?"  The  peculiar  meaning  of  the 
Slu'cliinah  in  Jewish  theology  is  well  enough  defined  to 
show  that  the  passage  was  evidently  regarded  as  Messianic, 
and  could  not,  therefore,  be  applied  to  David  without 
seeming  profanity. 

The  Talmud  (Sanhedrin,  fol.  08,  col.  1)  interprets  Dan. 
vii.  i;]:  "l^abbi  Joshua  ben  Levi  asked:  In  one  place  it  is 
written,  *  Behold  one  like  the  son  of  man,  etc.,'  and  in  an- 
other, '  Lowly  and  riding  upon  an  ass  '  (Zach.  ix.  9).  (lie 
answered),  If  they  be  Avorthy,  he  (the  Messias)  will  come 
with  tlie  clouds  of  heaven;  if  not,  he  will  come  lowly  and 
riding  upon  an  ass."  Similar  Messianic  references  we 
find  in  the  later  Jewish  writers:  Saadia,  for  instance,  who 
nourished  in  the  ninth  (;entury,  has  the  following  passage: 
"This  (one  like  the  son  of  man)  is  the  Messias  our  i-ight- 
eousness;  for  is  it  not  written  with  refei'ence  to  Messias, 
"  IjowIv  and  lidiiii,'  ii[)()n  an  ass?  (Zacli.  ix.  0.)  Surely  lie 
comes  in  liumilily,  for  he  does  not  come  upon  a  horse,  in 
glorv.     But  sin(X'  it  is  wi'illen,  Willi  the  clouds  of  heaven. 


THE  MES8IAS  18  THE  SON  OF  MAN.  411 

it  signifies  the  angels  of  tlie  lieiivenly  hosts^  whicli  is  the 
great  glory  the  Creator  will  give  to  the  Messias,  as  it 
is  written,  With  the  clonds  of  heaven.  Then  he  shall  be 
great  in  government.  When  it  is  said,  The  Ancient  of  days 
did  sit,  whose  garment  was  white  as  snow,  and  the  hair  of  his 
head  like  pnre  wool,  he  speaks  after  the  manner  of  men. 
Theybronght  him  to  the  Ancient  of  days;  for  it  is  written 
(Ps.  cix.  1),  The  Lord  said  unto  my  Lord,  Sit  thou  at 
my  right  hand;  and  there  was  given  him  dominion,  i.e., 
he  gave  to  him  a  government  and  a  kingdom,  as  it  is  writ- 
ten (Ps.  ii.  G),  Yet  have  I  set  my  king  ui)on  my  holy  hill 
of  Sion;  and  as  it  is  written  (L  Kings  ii.  10),  lie  shall 
exalt  the  horn  of  his  anointed;  his  kingdom  shall  not 
depart,  and  shall  not  be  destroyed  for  ever  and  ever." 

We  may  add  here  the  testimony  of  the  Midrash  on  Num- 
l)ers  (vi.  22,  sect.  11) :  "  Because  the  Israelites  observed  the 
law  among  them  (the  Edomites),  the  Holy  One  will  make 
them  inherit  in  the  future  the  throne  of  glory,  as  it  is  said. 
And  the  kingdom  and  dominion,  and  the  greatness.  .  .  ." 
See  also  Abarljanel  (Comni.  in  h.  1.  fol.  50,001.  1);  Jac- 
chiades  (Jer.  xxxiii.  G) ;  David  Kimchi  (Comm.  in  Zach. 
93);  Jarchi,  II.  Simeon. 

DaJST.    VII. 

In  the  first  year  of  Baltassar  king  of  Bal)ylon,  Daniel  saw  a 
dream  and  the  vision  of  his  head  was  upon  his  bed,  and  writing 
the  dream,  he  compreliended  it  in  few  words,  and  relating  the 
sum  of  it  in  short,  he  said:  I  saw  in  my  vision  by  night,  and  be- 
hold the  four  winds  of  heaven  strove  upon  the  great  sea.  '  And 
four  great  beasts,  different  one  from  another,  came  up  out  of  the 

'  And  four  great  beasts.  It  appears  to  be  generally  admitted  that  the 
seventh  and  the  sec<ind  chapters  of  Daniel  refer  to  the  same  events.. 
In  both  cliaiiters  there  is  question  of  four  kingdoms,  though  the  sym- 
liols  by  which  tlie  kingdoms  are  re])resented  are  different  in  the  two 
chapters.  In  th(^  second  chapter  it  was  Nabuchodonosor  who  saw 
the  symbols  ;  hence  they  were  such  as  represented  the  kingdoms  only 
from  iritlioitt,  as  it  were.  The  different  kingdoms  of  the  world  in 
their  fullest  glory  are  but  comjionent  parts  of  one  colossal  figure, 
bearing  the  outward  resemblance  of  a  man.     The  power  of  God's 


412  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

sea.     Tlie  first  was  like  a  lioiioss,  and  had  tho  wings  of  an  eagle.     T 

kingdom  is  but  luimble,  as  a  stone  cut  without  iiands.  But  on  the 
other  hand,  gold,  silver,  brass,  iron,  are  only  man's  handiwork;  wliile 
the  stoiu!  re])resenting  the  kingdom  of  (iod  i.s  not  made  by  man,  "cut 
without  hands."  ]}ut  tliougli  interpreters  recognize  the  substantial 
identity  of  the  events  foretold  in  the  second  and  the  seventh  cha])ters, 
thev  differ  regarding  almost  all  particulars  of  these  two  passages  of 
Dan i eh 

Vauious  Explanations. — a.  A  number  of  Protestant  interpreters 
have  viewed  the  four  kingdoms  of  Daniel,  not  as  four  distinct  king- 
doms, but  rather  as  four  distinct  periods  of  the  same  Babylonian 
kingdom  (Henzel,  von  der  Hardt,  llarenl)erg,  Drxlerlein,  Scharfen- 
berg).  It  is  astonishing  that  a  view  which  liardly  needs  a  word  of 
refutation  on  account  of  its  inherent  im])robability  has  found  so  many 
adherents  even  aTUong  able  men  of  science.  It  has  been  ablv  refuted 
by  Berthohlt. 

b.  Another  explanation  regards  not  the  Babylonian,  but  the  Assyr- 
ian kingdom  as  the  first  reign  spoken  of  by  Daniel  (Kwald,  Bunsen). 
But  the  prn])h('t's  text  itself  is  evidently  against  this  theory,  so  that 
Ewald  lias  retracted  his  ojiinion  in  the  latt-r  ediiion  of  his  work, 
"  Die  Projilu^ten  des  alten  Bundes."  Ziindel  has  lately  lefuted  this 
view,  though  it  is  hardly  worth  that  much  attention  on  account  of 
the  scarcity  of  its  defenders. 

e.  According  to  an  exi)lanation  that  dates  back  to  Porphyry,  the 
first  kingdom  is  the  Babylonian  ;  the  second,  the  Medo-Peisian  ;  the 
third,  the  kingdom  of  Alexander;  the  fourth,  the  kingdom  of  Alex- 
ander's successors.  This  interpretation  counts  among  its  adherents 
such  writers  as  (rrotius,  ,1.  ("hr.  Becmann,  Hosenmiiller,  L.  Berthohlt, 
O.  Zijckler,  and  the  Catholic  authors  Jahn  and  (i.  K.  Mayer.  Its  refu- 
tation will  be  given  below. 

d.  Ilitzig  and  Bede])ennig  have  sought  a  new  way  out  of  the  diffi- 
culties that  Daniel's  i  rediction  im])lies  for  all  Bationalistic  authors. 
The  first  kingdom  i.s  that  of  Nabuchodonosor;  the  second,  that  of  his 
successors;  the  third,  the  Medo-1'ersian  ;  the  fourth,  the  ^lacedo- 
(irecian.  The  refutation  of  this  theory  will  be  found  under  the  next 
number. 

e.  There  is  another  exjdanation  of  the  four  kingdoms  that  may 
be  called  both  ancient  and  recent,  since  it  has  lieen  defended  by  sev- 
eral of  the  ])atristic  writers  and  is  still  defended  by  a  great  number 
of  .scholars  in  our  days.  The  first  kingdom  is  according  to  this  theory 
the  Babylonian  ;  the  second  is  the  Median  ;  the  third,  the  Persian  ; 
the  fotirlh.  the  (ireek-Syrian  (l'^]ihrem,  Cosnuis  IndicopU'u.stes,  .hihn, 
Dereser.  Scliolz,  Hade,  loch,  an(i  Ueischl.  and  the  Protestant  writers, 

, Newton,  Bleek.  Delitzsch,  Desi)rez,  Kichhorn,  Ewald,  llilgenfeld, 
Kranichfeid,  (iaussen,  von  Lengerke,  Maurer,  de  Welte).  It  maybe 
said,  in  general,  tiiat  nearly  all  thosi^  writers  who  place  the  author- 
ship of  Daniel  in  the  time  of  the  Machnbees  have  found  it  conven- 
ient to  adhere  to  this  explanation  of  the  four  kingdoms. 

As  to  proofs  for  the  interpretation,  we  sliall  enumerate  the  reasons 
advanced  for  the  single  kingdoms  in  order.  1.  In  ii.  iJH  Daniel  says 
exj>ressly  to  Nabuchodonosor:  "  'I'hou  therefore  art  the  head  of  gold." 


TEE  ME8STAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  MAN.  41 3 

beheld  till  her  wings  were  plucked  off,  and  she  was  lifted  up  from 

Now  the  head  of  gold  represents  the  first  kingdom,  so  that  Nabucho- 
donosor  represents  t)ie  first  of  Daniel's  four  kingdoms.  The  question 
which  comes  up  at  this  point  regards  the  circumstance  whether  Na- 
buchodonosor  personally  is  the  head  of  gold,  so  that  his  successor  may 
be  the  second  kingdom,  or  whether  tlie  kingdom  of  Nabuchodonosor 
is  symbolized  by  the  head  of  gold.  We  decidedly  defend  tliis  latter 
view  against  Ilitzig  and  his  followers,  'i'his  is  clear  from  the  context 
of  the  above  words.  For  in  ii.  o9  we  read  :  "  and  after  thee  shall  rise 
up  another  kingdom.  ..."  Now  the  hist  three  words  of  this  prom- 
ise furnish  so  many  arguments  for  the  view  that  Nabuchodonosor's 
kingdom  and  not  his  ]>erson  was  symbolized  by  the  head  of  gold.  A 
KINGDOM,  not  a  mere  king,  was  to  rise  up  after  the  monarch,  showing 
that  the  second  symbol  represented  a  kingdom,  not  the  person  of  a 
king.  Again,  the  kingdom  was  to  kise  up  after  Nabuchodonosor  ; 
therefore  it  did  not  exist  at  his  time,  nor  was  it  merely  to  pass  over  to 
another  ruler.  Thirdly,  anotueh  kingdom  was  to  rise  up  after 
Nabuchodonosor,  so  that  the  second  .symbol  could  not  apply  to  either 
Nabuchodonosor's  kingdom  as  governed  by  his  successor,  or  to  the 
person  of  his  successor.  Besides,  Hitzig  himself  explains  Dan.  vii. 
as  referring  to  the  Babylonian,  the  Median,  the  Persian,  and  the  Cireek 
kingdoms  ;  Avhy  then  follow  a  different  explanation  in  Dan.  ii.  V  The 
author's  assumption  that  Daniel  knew  only  two  Babylonian  kings, 
Nabuchodonosor  and  Baltassar,  is  wholly  gratuitous  ,  the  person  who 
wrote  under  the  name  of  Daniel  did  not  live  long  before  Josephus,  if 
Hitzig's  theory  is  correct.  Now,  Josephus  (Antiq.  X.  xi.  2)  knew  as 
many  as  three  successors  of  Nal)uchodonosor.  XN'hat  right  have  we 
then  to  suppose  that  Pseudo-Daniel  knew  less  about  Babylonian  his- 
tory V  But  besides  all  this,  we  have  shown  above  that  most  probably 
Baltassar  was  no  king  at  all,  being  only  the  co  regent  of  his  father, 
Naboned.  How  then  could  Daniel  represent  him  by  the  second  sym- 
bol as  the  second  kingdom  V 

2.  The  second  kingdom  of  Daniel  is  the  Median.  Rea.sons:  a.  The 
symbols  themselves  represent  the  Median  kingdom  admirably.  Ac- 
cording to  Dan.  ii.  it  is  imaged  by  silver,  which  is  inferior  to  gold  ; 
according  to  Dan.  vii.  it  is  like  a  bear  standing  uj)  on  one  side,  and 
having  three  rows  in  its  mouth  and  devouring  much  tiesh.  Now, 
Darius  the  Mede  was  far  inferior  to  Nabuchodonosor,  having  power 
only  in  one  part  of  the  preceding  kingdom  ;  still,  he  ruled  over  three 
peoples — the  Medes.the  Persians,  and  the  Babylonians — and  devoured 
much  flesh  when  s  iljduing  and  destroying  the  kingdom  of  the  Baby- 
lonians, b.  According  to  Lengerke,  Daniel  has  conceived  the  rule 
of  the  Medes  as  succeeding  that  of  the  Babylonians,  following  in  this 
view  a  tradition  found  in  Xenophon  rather  than  the  trustworthy 
record  of  Herodotus  (I.  130;  cf  VHI.  8).  For  Xenophon  has  it  that 
Cyrus  subdued  Babylonia  in  the  name  of  the  Median  king  Cyaxares 
II.  e.  This  ex])lanation  of  Daniel  is  confirmed  by  his  symbol  of  the 
ram  in  the  eighth  chajiter.  For  the  two  horns  of  this  ram  clearly  .show 
that  Daniel  considers  the  Medes  and  the  Persians  as  constituting  two 
distinct  kingdoms,  d.  A  similar  argument  for  Daniel's  dividing  the 
Medo-Persian  rule  into  two  kingdoms   is  derived  from  Dan.  v.  28, 


414  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

tlic  earth,  and  stood  upon  lier  feet  as  a  man,  and  tlie  heart  of  a 

where  the  projjhet  speaks  of  the  Medes  and  tlie  Persians,  inverting 
the  order  of  Is.  xxi.  3  ;  af,raiii,I)eiit/.sch  calls  attention  to  the  circum- 
stance tliat  in  Dan.  vi.  1  ;  ix.  1 :  xi.  1,  Darius  is  ex])res.sly  noted  as 
bein.i^  a  Mede,  while  in  vi.  2J)  CVrus  is  said  to  he  a  Persian.  The  in- 
spired writer,  tlierefort!.  distinguished  the  Medes  and  the  Persians 
front  eaidi  otlujr.  e.  The  description  of  the  second  kingdom  (Dan. 
vii.  5)  exactly  fits  in  with  the  circumstance  that  the  kingdom  of  the 
Meiles,  like  those  of  the  Babylonians  and  the  Persians,  endiraced 
warlike  and  aggressive  nations.  The  value  of  these  arguments  will 
ajipear  when  we  shall  s])eak  of  the  next  theory  concerning  the  four 
kingdoms. 

;i  As  to  the  third  kingdom,  it  must  he  observed  in  the  first  place 
that  the  symbol  exhibited  in  the  pro])het  cannot  Ix;  understood  of  the 
kingdom  of  Alexander  so  as  to  ex(dude  his  successors,  llengstenliorg 
has  satisfactorily  jjroved  that  at  the  time  of  the  Machabees  no  such 
distinction  was  iiuide  between  .Mexander  and  his  succossors  as  to  war- 
rant ais  in  considering  the  former  as  the  third  and  the  latter  as  tlie 
fourth  kingdom.  As  to  the  other  reasons  that  liertholdt  and  liis 
adherents  give  for  such  a  se])aration,  they  ari>  one  and  all  founded 
upon  the  subjective  view  of  Daniel's  pro])hccics.  w  Inch  are  i)eculiar  to 
those  interpret'.-rs,  and  cannot  claim  any  serious  attention  on  account  of 
their  own  intrinsic  i)robal>ility.  It  necessarily  follows  from  what  has 
been  said  of  the  second  kingdom,  as  comjiared  with  wliat  will  be  said 
of  the  fourth,  that  the  third  can  only  be  the  kingdom  of  the  Persians. 

4.  The  fourth  kingdom  is  symbolized  in  cha])ter  vii.  by  a  l)east 
with  ten  horns,  from  among  which  rises  a  little  horn  before  which  three 
of  the  ten  are  piucla'd  uji  by  the  roots,  a.  This  division  linds  its  fulfil- 
nu'iit  in  the  successors  of  Alexander,  or  even  in  Alexander  togethtT 
with  his  successors.  Nor  can  it  be  .said  that  Dan.  viii.  !S  is  against 
such  an  interpretation,  since  in  that  ])assage  four  monarchi»'s,  not  ten, 
are  enumerated  as  following  that  of  Alexander.  For  the  lesser  king- 
doms into  whi(di  the  kingdom  of  Alexander  was  divided  were  reck- 
oned sometimes  as  four,  ruled  by  i^eleucus  Xicator,  Lysimachus, 
Ptoh'Uiy  iiagi,  and  C'assander,  or  as  ten  under  the  generals  who,  after 
the  death  of  tiieir  chief,  di\ided  his  i)rovinces  among  themselves. 
All  these  ivingdoms  existed  contemporaneously,  and  therefore  satisfy 
the  literal  re(iuirements  of  the  text.  (S.  Again,  critics  are  almost 
unanimous  in  referring  the  little  horn  of  Dan.  viii.  to  Antiochus 
Kpiphanes.  Hut  the  little  horn  of  c.  viii.  must  be  identical  with  that 
of  c.  vii.  Hence  Antiochus  Kpiphanes  must  be  represented  by  the 
little  horn  in  c.  vii.  Now  Antiochus,  Syrian  as  he  was,  took  his  rise 
from  the  (ira'co-Macedonian  dynasty,  and  at  the  same  tinu'  from  the 
foiiith  kingdom.  The  latter  r.iust  then  be  idcnti<-al  with  theliraco 
Macedonian  kingdom.  That  the  little  horn  of  c,  vii.  is  identical  with 
that  of  c.  viii.  may  be  seen  by  comparing  vii.  8,  II,  20,  21,  24-20 
with  viii.  9-12,  22-25.  The  same  nniy  l)e  confirmed  by  referring  to 
xi.  21  f.  As  to  the  precise  i)ersons  who  are  to  be  reckoned  among 
the  ten,  authors  differ;  the  lists  of  Hleek,  Ho.senmuller,  Hitzig, 
Porphyry,  etc.,  may  be  .seen  in  Dii.sterwald,  \^\k  110,  111,  112,  1K5. 

/.    Finally,  we  come  tt)  what  we  may  name  the  traditional  explana- 


THE  ME8SIA8  IS  THE  SON'  OF  MAN.  415 

man  was  given  to  her.    And  behold  another  beast  like  a  bear  stood 

tion  of  Daniel's  four  kingdoms.  For  we  find  it  in  all  ages  of  the 
Church,  from  the  patristic  writers  dawn  to  the  most  recent  inter 
preters.  The  names  of  the  most  prominent  adherents  of  this  view 
will  serve  hoth  as  proof  for  its  constant  presence  in  the  Church  and 
as  external  evidence  for  its  truth.  The  explanation  is  stated  and 
proved  by  Origen,  Hippolytus,  Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  ApolJinaris  of 
Laodicea,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Ammonius  of  Alexandria,  Jerome, 
Tbeodoret  of  Cyrus.  Walafried  Strabo  received  this  theory  into  the 
"glosa  ordinaria  "  (84'J),  and,  as  our  very  opponents  atfiriu,  it  has  be- 
come "  canonical  "  since  that  time.  Throughout  the  middle  ages  it 
reigned  almost  alone  in  the  world  of  commentators,  so  that"  even 
iiUther  maintains  :  "  In  this  interpretation  and  opinion  the  whole 
world  is  unanimous,  and  the  work  itself  as  well  as  history  is  a  power- 
ful proof  for  it."  There  were  indeed  a  few  opponents  to  this  view 
in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  a  passing  opposition 
arose  also  in  the  eighteenth,  and  in  the  nineteenth  the  number  of 
adversaries  has  grown  to  a  still  greater  extent.  But  the  nuudjer  of 
defenders  of  the  view  increased  with  the  number  of  its  opponents,  so 
tluit  the  most  recent  interjjreters  are  about  evenly  divided  for  and 
against  this  explanation.  Among  the  older  interpreters,  St.  Thomas, 
Pererius,  Maldonatus,  Estius,  a  Lapide,  Sanchez,  Rupert  of  Deutz, 
Tirinus,  and  Calmet  deserve  to  be  named  among  the  upholders  of  the 
traditionary  interpretation.  Among  the  recent  writers  we  have  the 
Catholics:  AHii)li,  Keiuke,  Welte,  Hohling,  Kaulen,  U.  K.  Mayer, 
Dusterwald,  Knabenbauer,  F'abre  d'Envieu,  together  with  the  Prot- 
estants :  Auberlen,  Caspari,  Fuller,  Haevernick,  v.  Hofmann,  Hengs- 
tenbsrg,  Kliefoth,  Gartner,  Menken,  Preiswerk,  Pusey,  Keichel, 
Volck,  Zeise,  and  Zlindel,  forming  one  solid  array  for  the  defence  of 
the  traditional  explanation.  Finally,  it  must  be  noted  that  the  same 
opinion  may  be  traced  back  to  the  fourth  Book  of  Esdras,  and  to  the 
epistle  attril)ut(nl  to  St.  Barnabas,  and  has  been  adopted  by  the  Tar- 
gum  of  Jonathan,  Josephus,  the  Talmud,  K.  Albo,  and  other  Hebrew 
writers  of  great  weight. 

After  stating  the  extrinsic  evidence  in  favor  of  the  .so  called  tradi- 
tional explanation  of  Daniel's  four  kingdoms,  we  must  examine  the 
thein-y  according  to  its  intrinsic  worth.  The  first  kingdom  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  Babylonian,  the  second  the  Medo  Persian,  the  third 
the  Cra^co  Macedonian,  the  fourth  the  Roman.  A  word  must  be  said 
about  the  single  kingdoms  : 

1.  The  first  kingdom  is  the  Babylonian.  The  proofs  for  this  part 
are  the  same  as  those  advanced  by  the  adherents  of  the  preceding  ex- 
planation, since  m  this  point  there  is  no  difference  between  the  two 
interpretations. 

2.  The  second  kingdom  is  the  Medo  Persian.  In  point  of  fact, 
there  has  never  been  a  distinction  between  the  Median  and  the  Per- 
sian dynasty  ruling  on  the  throne  of  Babylon.  This  has  been  suffi- 
ciently established  liy  Meng.stenberg  ,  but  our  non-Catholic  opponents 
are  in  no  way  inconvenienced  by  this  fact,  since  they  freely  grant 
that  Daniel  erred  in  distinguishing  between  the  two  kingdoms.  In 
ortler  to  meet  them  in  this  position,  we  must  show  that  even  Daniel 


416  THE  MESSIANW  NAMES. 

lip  on  om:  side,  and  tlierc  wciv  tliivc  ruw.s  in  tlit'  mouth  thereof, 

rofrards  the  Mfdo-I'crsian  dyiiiisty  as  forinin^^  one  kingdom  :  a.  In 
Dan.  V.  '^8  it  is  lorctold  :  " 'I'hy  Ulngdcnii  is  divided  and  is  jrivi-n  to 
tlu!  Mcdt's  and  Persians. "  Now  tlic  fullihiient  of  tliis  iirrdictioii 
is  cxiircssly  stated  in  Dan.  vi.  1,  when^  it  appears  thai  l^ai>yh)nia  is 
not  divided  hetween  two  different  rulers,  hut  is  ruled  liy  a  dynasty 
(•onsistinj;;  of  two  nations  (cf.  vi.  8,  12,  15).  If  then  Daniel  had  re- 
garded the  Medes  and  the  Persians  as  two  distinct  kingdoms,  ho 
would  havi-  contradicted  himself  within  the  range  of  a  few  verses. 
/'.  'IMie  same  iniVrence  may  be  drawn  from  the  circumstance  that 
Daniel  ])redicts  "  thy  kingdom  ...  is  given  to  the  Medes  and 
i'ersians."  The  rule  of  the  two  is,  therefore,  representt-d  as  conteni- 
jioraneous,  not  as  successive,  in  ])oint  of  time.  It  ai)pears  to  he  evi- 
tlent  from  the  whole  context  of  the  passage  that  Daniel  knows  only 
of  one  kingdom  following  that  of  Haltassar,  and,  therefore,  the 
Medo- Persian  dynasty  is  regarded  by  Daniel  as  only  one  reign,  c. 
The  original  text  of  the  words  "  is  divided  "  (peres  perisat)  is  used 
1)V  Dijnitd  with  evident  allusion  to  the  Persians,  so  that  the  word 
means  luith  "thy  kingdom  is  divided,"  and  "  thy  kingdom  is  ren- 
(h'rcd  Persian."  Still,  the  projihet  continues  in  the  same  passage  : 
"and  is  given  to  the  Medes  and  I'ersians."  Therefore  the  Babylo- 
nian kingdom  is  rendered  Persian  in  sucdi  a  manner  as  to  pass 
over  into  the  hands  of  the  Medes  and  Persians.  It  would  be  hard  to 
find  a  more  cogent  proof  for  the  undivided  state  of  the  Medo-1'ersian 
kingdom  than  this  playful  allusion  of  the  prophet.  Nor  can  it  he 
maintained  that  the  inspired  writer  employs  this  ex])ression  "is  ren- 
dered Persian  "  because  lit;  had  no  verb  to  express  tlie  double  idea  of 
"  is  divided  "  and  "  is  rendered  Median."  For  had  lie  wished  to  ex- 
])re.ss  that  idea,  the  verb  "  madad  "  would  have  fitted  exactly  into 
Ids  text.  (/.  This  view  is  rendered  equally  evident  by  Dan.  vi.  8,  13, 
15.  For  in  these  three  verses  the  courtiers  of  Darius  speak  of  the 
unchangeable  character  of  the  "  decree  of  the  Medes  and  Persians." 
Had  the  two  nations  not  been  united,  this  language  would  be  unintel- 
ligible. For  it  would  surely  have  been  e(pial  to  high  treason,  espe- 
cially at  an  oriental  court,  to  sjieak  before  the  monarch  of  the  custom 
or  law  or  decree  of  another  nation,  c.  The  very  syndtolism  emi>Ioved 
by  l)ani(d  to  represent  the  second  kingdom  seems  to  recpiire  such  a 
doid)le  dynasty  as  we  find  in  that  of  the  Medes  and  Persians.  In 
the  second  chapter  the  second  kingdom  is  represented  by  the  breast 
and  arms  of  tlie  statue,  while  in  the  .seventh  chai)ter  its  synd)ol  is  the 
bi-ar  standing  on  one  sid(\  Both  these  figures  sup]>ose  a  dual  char- 
ai'ter  of  the  second  dynasty.  Again,  it  would  be  hard  to  explain  the 
three  rows  in  the  mouth  of  the  Iiear  and  the  words  "arise,  devour 
much  Hesh,"  as  ap]>lying  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Medes.  For  what- 
ever may  be  said  to  the  contrary,  i)arius  was  certainly  not  blood- 
thirsty enough  to  be  re)>resented  as  having  devoured  much  Hesh  : 
the  various  attempts  made  to  explain  the  three  rows  satisfactorily 
of  Darius  show  the  weakness  of  the  whole  theory.  /'.  Finally,  we 
must  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Median  kingdom  would 
lie  a  strange  ilynasty,  indeed,  if  it  had  ever  been  separated  in  Babylon 
from   the  Persian.     How  could    we  in  that  case  exj)lain  that  a  Per- 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  MAN.  417 

and  in  the  teeth  thereof,  and  thus  they  said  to  it:  Arise,  devour 

sian  reigns  after  Darius  Avithoiit  there  being  the  least  indication  of 
any  strife  or  bloodshed  between  Medes  and  Persians?  On  the  other 
hand,  the  second  kingdom  might  well  be  called  "inferior"  (Dan. 
ii.  31))  to  the  Babylonian,  if  it  belonged  to  the  Medes  and  Persians. 
For  its  dual  character  would  lessen  its  internal  strength  sufficiently 
to  ])lace  it  below  the  well-united  Babylonian  dynasty. 

We  have  not  yet  stated  that  the  person  of  Darius  the  Mede  is  en 
veloped  in  tlie  greatest  mystery.  Without  entering  here  into  a  full 
discussion  of  his  identity,  we  merely  enumerate  the  different  opinions 
that  have  been  entertained  in  regard  to  this  (juestion.  The  Book 
of  Daniel  gives  such  vague  information  tliat  it  is  im])ossible  to  come 
to  a  deKnite  conclusion  from  the  data  that  it  sajiplies.  Darius  has 
been  identified  with  a  nephew  of  Nabuchodonosor  (Theodoret),  with 
Cyrus  the  Persian  (Boscawen),  with  Naboned  (Scaliger),  with  Darius 
Hystaspis  (Bosanquet),  with  Astyages,  the  predecessor  of  Oyrus  (many 
ancient  interpreters,  M.  Niebuhr),  with  Neriglissar,  the  successor  of 
Evilmerodach  ((iutschmidt,  Fabre  d'Envieu),  with  C'yaxares  II.,  men- 
tioned in  Xenophon's  C'yrop.  (Joseph,  Jerome,  Bertholdt,  v.  Len 
gerke,  etc.),  with  (liobryas  mentioned  by  Herodotus  and  Xenophon, 
and  Ugbaru  mentioned  in  Naboned's  annals  (Babelon).  Though  we 
cannot  here  determine  which  of  these  views  is  the  more  correct  one, 
we  may  at  least  infer  from  the  relation  which  Cyrus  hokls  with  re- 
lation to  the  various  persons  identified  with  Darius  the  Mede  that 
the  kingdom  of  the  Medes  is  not  distinct  from  that  of  the  Persians. 

3.  The  third  kingdom  of  which  Daniel  speaks  is  not  the  Persian, 
nor  tliat  of  Alexander  as  distinct  from  that  of  his  succes.sors,  but  it  is 
the  Macedo-CJreek  kingdom.  It  is  clear  from  Daniel  that  the  third 
kingdom  will  have  three  special  characteristics :  it  will  extend  over 
the  whole  earth  ;  its  conquests  will  be  exceedingly  rapid  ;  and  it  will 
be  divided  into  four  regencies.  Starting  from  these  facts,  we  may 
advance  the  following  proofs  in  support  of  our  contention  :  a.  It  has 
been  shown  above  that  the  Persian  kingdom  is  one  with  the  Median, 
both  being  represented  by  the  i)r()pliet  as  the  second  kingdom. 
Hence  the  third  kingdom  must  differ  from  the  Persian,  b.  It  has 
been  shown  too  that  the  third  kingdom  is  not  Alexander's  kingdom 
as  distinct  from  that  of  his  successors.  Hence  nothing  else  remains 
than  that  the  third  kingdom  must  be  that  of  Alexander  and  his  succes- 
sors, or  the  Macedo-direek  kingdom,  c.  Both  conclusions,  from  which 
this  last  inference  has  been  drawn,  are  confirmed  by  Dan.  viii.  In 
this  chapter  the  prophet  sees  two  bea.sts  represeming  two  kingdoms, 
identical  with  two  of  the  four  kingdoms  represented  by  the  four  beasts 
of  Dan.  vii.  Since  in  these  visions  the  characteristics  of  the  king- 
doms are  more  minutely  described  than  in  the  visions  of  the  seventh 
chapter,  and  since  the  prophet  himself  applies  them  to  definite  kings, 
it  will  be  found  serviceable  for  the  determination  of  the  meaning  of 
the  four  beasts  in  the  seventh  chapter  to  consider  the  symbols  of  the 
eighth. 

<t .  The  first  vision  is  described  viii.  3  ff.  r  "  And  I  lifted  up  my  eyes, 
and  saw  ;  and  behold,  a  ram  stood  before  the  water,  having  two  high 
horns,  and  one  higher  than  the  other^  and  growing  up.     Afterward 


418  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

luuoli  flesh.     After  tliis  I  beheld,  and  lo  another  like  a  leopard, 

I  saw  the  ram  pushing  with  his  horns  against  the  west,  and  against 
the  north,  ami  against  the  south,  and  no  beasts  could  withstand  him, 
nor  be  delivered  out  of  his  hand,  and  he  did  aceording  to  his  own 
will,  and  became  great,  and  1  understood."  'I'hen,  in  verse  2(1,  tlio 
l)ro])het  is  t(jld  :  " 'i'lie  ram  which  thou  sawest  with  liorns  is  the 
king  of  the  Medes  and  Persians."  This  last  passage  of  the  jn-ophet 
ought  to  suftice  as  a  ])roof  that  Daniel  did  not  regard  the  kingdoms 
of  the  Medes  and  Persians  as  distinct,  and  could  not  therefore 
reckon  the  Median  dynasty  as  the  second  and  the  Persian  dynasty  as 
the  third  kingdom.  But  we  have  seen  already  that  our  opjionents 
are  by  no  means  disturbed  by  this  infeience.  Accoi<iing  to  them, 
Daniel  is  ignorant  of  the  Medo  Persian  liistory  in  the  second  chap- 
ter, and  in  the  eighth  he  has  foigotleii  what  he  has  written  in  the 
seventh.  For  men  who  recur  to  subterfuges  like  tiu'se  it  is  not  suf- 
ficient ])roof  that  Daniel  nowhere  else  syndjolizes  independent  king- 
dcmis  by  horns;  the  latter  are  either  kings  (vii.  5,  J5,  21  ;  viii.  9,  23) 
or  smaller  dependent  nalms  (viii.  8,  22),  or  finally  nations  wliich 
constitute  a  larger  kingdom.  Hence  the  Medo-Persian  dynasty  is  in 
cha])ter  viii.  not  symbolized  by  two  horns,  but  by  a  lam  with  two 
horns.  Now  this  re]ire;-entation  exactly  agrees  witli  the  tiguic  of  the 
second  kingdom  in  chajiters  ii.  and  vii.  In  the  former  the  second 
kingdom  is  represented  by  the  silver  breast  and  the  arms  of  the  statue, 
Avhile  in  chapter  vii.  it  is  symbolized  by  the  bear  standing  on  one 
side.  The  natural  inference  is  that  the  second  kingdom  of  chajiters 
ii.  and  vii.  is  the  Medo  I'ersian  kingdom. 

fi.  In  a  similar  manner  we  can  show  that  tlie  second  animal  seen  bv 
the  ])rophet  in  cha])ter  viii.  represents  the  third  kingdom  of  the  four 
symbolized  in  chajiters  ii.  and  vii.,  and  that  this  tliird  kingdom  is  the 
Macedo(ireek  dynasty.  The  second  beast  is  desi'ribed  in  cuajiter  viii. 
')  If.  :  '■  And  behold,  a  he  goat  came  from  the  west  on  the  face  of  the 
whole  earth,  and  lie  touched  not  the  ground,  and  the  he  goat  had  a 
notable  horn  between  his  eyes.  And  he  went  u])  to  the  ram  that  had 
the  horns,  which  I  had  seen  standing  before  the  gate,  and  he  ran 
towards  him  in  the  force  of  his  strength.  And  when  he  was  come 
near  the  ram,  he  was  enraged  against  him,  and  struck  the  ram,  and 
liroi<e  his  two  horns,  and  ihi-  ram  could  not  withstand  him;  and  when 
he  had  cast  him  down  on  the  ground,  he  stamped  uium  him,  and  none 
could  deliver  the  ram  out  of  his  hand.  And  the  he  goat  became  ex- 
ceeding great,  and  when  Ik^  was  grown  the  great  horn  was  broken, 
anil  there  came  up  four  horns  under  it  towards  the  four  winds  of 
lieaven."  Daniel  again  applies  this  vision  exjtressly  in  verse  21  : 
"  And  tlu!  he  goat  is  the  king  of  tlie  (ireeks,  and  the  great  horn  that 
was  between  his  eyes,  the  same  is  the  first.  .  .  ."  All  this  is  stated 
so  clearly  in  the  prophecy  that  no  oiu'  can  contradict  it  who  admits 
Daniel's  authority  at  all.  Ibit  now  the  (piestion  ari.ses  :  with  which 
of  the  four  beasts  must  we  identify  the  he-goat,  and  with  wliich  of  the 
four  kingdoms  must  we  identify  the  Maci'do(ireek  kingdom,  rei)re- 
sented  by  the  he-goat  V 

t(  The  he  goat  follows  imnu'diately  \\\nm  \\\v.  ram  whose  two  horns 
he  breaks.     Now  the  ram  rejiresents  the  second  kingdom  ;  hence  the 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  MAN.  419 

and  it  had  ujwn  it  four  wings  as  of  a  fowl,  and  the  beast  had 

he-goat,  or  the  Macedo  Tireek  dynasty,  must  be  the  third  kingdom, 
'i'he  symbol  of  the  third  kingdom  given  in  c  vii.  perfectly  agrees 
with  the  symbol  ot  the  Macedo-GlreeJv  kingdom  represented  in  c.  viii. 
Both  the  leojjard  and  the  he-goat  are  noted  for  their  swiftness,  and, 
to  emphasize  this  characteristic  still  more,  the  leopard  has  four  wings, 
as  of  a  fowl  ;  both  leopard  and  he  goat  are  noted  for  their  division 
into  four  •  the  former  has  four  heads,  the  latter  has  four  horns. 
Tills  agreement  becomes  much  more  striking  if  it  is  compared  with 
the  result  of  our  opponents.  For  according  to  them  the  he  goat  with 
lour  horns  must  be  identified  with  the  fourth  beast  of  the  seventh 
chapter,  terrible  and  wonderful,  and  exceeding  strong,  with  great 
iron  teeth,  eating  and  breaking  hi  pieces,  and  treading  down  the  rest 
with  its  feet,  and  having  ten  horns.  On  the  other  hand,  the  leopard 
with  four  heads  mu.st  be  identified  with  the  raui  having  two  high 
horns  Such  an  explanation  resembles  more  the  bitter  satire  of  an 
enemy  of  ail  revealed  truth  than  the  reverence  of  a  believer  in  (Jod's 
jn'ophetic  inspiration 

b.  And  what  is  the  foundation  of  our  opponents'  theory  of  the  four 
kingdoms  ?  Their  principal  argument  re.sts  on  their  view  of  the  little 
horn  that  comes  forth  out  of  one  of  the  four  horns  of  the  he- 
goat.  Now,  the  little  horn  is,  according  to  all  interpreters,  Antiochus 
Epiphanes.  But  the  same  little  horn  appears  in  the  fourth  kingdom 
of  the  seventh  chapter  Hence,  Antiochus  Epiphanes  will  follow 
and  grow  out  of  the  fourth  kingdom,  so  that  the  latter  can  be  no 
other  tiian  the  Macedo-lireek  kingdom  But  if  the  Macedo  (ireek 
kingdom  is  the  fourth,  the  third  must  precede  it,  and  must  therefore 
be  the  Persian  It  is  evident  that  the  whole  force  of  this  argument 
lies  in  the  identity  of  the  little  horn  that  appears  in  the  seventh 
chapter  with  the  little  horn  that  appears  in  the  eighth.  This  iden- 
tity we  deny  most  emphatically,  relying  on  Daniel's  own  words  for 
our  arguments.  Accordaig  to  c.  vii.  the  little  horn  grows  between 
the  ten  horns  ;  according  to  c.  viii.  it  grows  out  of  one  of  the  four 
horns  ;  according  to  the  former  cha[iter  it  destroys  three  other  horns  , 
according  to  c.  viii  no  such  destruction  is  mentioned  the  little  horn 
of  c.  vii.  has  the  eyes  and  the  mouth  of  a  man,  that  of  c  viii  has  noth- 
ing ot  the  kind  to  characterize  it;  in  the  seventh  chapter  the  beast 
with  the  iitlle  horn  is  slam,  and  its  carcass  is  thrown  into  the  fire, 
while  the  eighth  chapter  knows  nothing  of  this  fate  of  the  bear.t. 
And  these  discrepancies  are  the  more  striking,  since  on  the  whole  the 
little  horn  of  the  seventh  chapter  is  more  minutely  described  than 
that  of  the  eighth.  The  whole  Book  of  Daniel  being  progressive  in 
its  development,  such  a  feature  would  be  impossible  were  the  little 
horn  of  the  seventh  chapter  identical  with  that  of  the  eighth. 

4.  The  fourth  kingdom  is  not  the  Macedo-Greek  one,  nor  the  one 
following  it  under  Alexander's  successors,  but  the  Boman.  Besides 
the  difficulties  that  have  already  been  mentioned  as  op{)osing  the 
view  that  the  kingdom  of  Alexander  or  that  of  his  successors  is  the 
fourdi  kingdom  of  the  prophet,  Ave  must  here  draw  attention  to  the 
circumstance  that  according  to  the  same  view  the  ten  horns  of  c.  vii. 
are  wholly  unintelligible.     Keeping  in  mind  that  the  ten  horns  must 


420  TIIK  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

four  heads  and  power  was  given  to  it.     After  tliis  I  l)eliel(l  in  the 

be  distinctly  ]ierccptilile  if  the  iiro])liecy  lias  been  fuUilied,  we  may 
review  some  of  the  jJiincijial  explanations  of  the  ten  horns  given  bv 
our  ()])poiit'nts. 

(I.  The  tirst  class  of  interpreters  is  right  in  assuming  that  the  teu 
horns  represent  ten  simultaneous  kings  ;  for  Dan.  vii.  7,  24  dis- 
tinctly describes  the  rulers  as  living  at  the  same  time.  But  wlieu 
those  authors  come  to  name  the  ten  kings  indicated  by  the  i)ro))liet, 
their  task  is  not  such  an  easy  one.  At  best,  they  i)roceed  wholly 
gratuitously,  since  ancient  writers,  both  sacred  and  ])rofane,  enumer- 
ate as  nuiny  as  thirty  successors  of  Alexander,  out  of  which  luunber 
the  ten  must  be  .selected  (Justin,  hist.  xiii.  4;  Diodor.  xviii  8,  4; 
Arrian  and  l)exi))pus  in  Phot  cod.  92,  p.  G',),  cod.  82,  p.  G4  ;  Curtius, 
X  ))()).  It  is  therefoi'e  not  at  all  sur])rising  that  ever}'  one  whf)  has 
altemi)ted  this  selection  of  the  ten  kings  diflers  from  his  jjredeces- 
sors  Bleek,  Amner,  and  Kosenmiiller  illustrate  this  statement  (cf. 
Diisterwald,  p.  110,  note). 

h.  The  ojiinion  of  a  second  class  of  interpreters,  which  seeks  the  ten 
kings  ami  ng  the  Seleucidje,  apjiears  imjjrobable,  even  i)rescinding 
from  the  enumeration  of  names.  For  instead  of  considering  ten 
jirincijial  kingdoms,  as  the  text  of  Daniel  reipiires,  the.se  authors  speak 
of  a  branch  kmgilom  ;  and  instead  of  enumerating  ten  contemjiorary 
kings,  they  appeal  to  ten  successive  ruler.s.  Besides,  they  cannot 
even  find  ten  kings  in  their  line  of  rulers  ,  for  three,  lleliodorus, 
Ptolemy  Philometcjr,  and  Demetrius,  are  not  kings,  but  only  pretend- 
ers to  the  throne.  Ziickler  abandons  the  task  of  enumerating  the 
ten  kings,  believing  that  it  is  imjiossible,  and  that  Daniel  intends 
only  a  round,  symbolic  number  by  his  ten  horns 

r.  Hitzig  has  lately  returned  to  a  hyi)othesis  which  had  been  tried 
even  by  Porphyry.  lie  assumes  it  as  certain  that  the  little  horn 
represents  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  then  endeavors  to  count  up  ten 
kings  among  his  predecessors  in  the  J^eleucidje  family.  'J'lie  first  of 
the  ten  is  Alexander  the  (ireat,  the  ninth  and  tenth  are  lleliodorus 
and  Demetrius.  We  have  seen  already  that  the  latter  two  never  were 
kings,  and  cannot  therefore  belong  to  the  ]iroplietic  series  of  Daniel. 
Alexander  was  king  indeed,  l)ut  he  neither  belonged  to  the  family  of 
Seleucus,  imr  can  he  be  considt  red  as  the  hitter's  i)redec(  s.-or,  since 
the  Svrian  reiilm  was  onlv  a  branch  of  Alexander's  kingdom 

(/.  (Jutschmid  (Kliein  "  Mu.^eum  18(50,  i)p.  ;n(>-;{18;  cf.  Ewald, 
Jahrb.  xi.  222)  has  tried  another  manner  of  sup])lying  at  least  one 
of  the  deliciencies  in  the  above  hypothesis  by  assuming  an  unknown 
son  of  Seleucus  Philopator.  It  is  true  that  lleliodorus  is  thus  elimi- 
nated from  the  list  of  kings,  but  only  to  make  i)lace  for  another 
candidate  whose  very  existence  is  uncertain. 

c.  We  must  tlu-refore  exjdain  the  ten  ])rophetic  kings  as  belonging 
to  the  Homan  emi>ire.  Hut  here,  again,  dilTereiit  autiiors  have  pro- 
posed different  views  concerning  the  individual  rulers  spoken  of  : 

(I.  Many  inttT|)ri-ters  regard  the  term  of  the  prediction  as  coinciding 
with  the  tirst  coining  of  Christ.  The  ten  horns  are  then  generally 
apj)lied  to  the  ten  jx-isecutors  of  the  Christians,  and  the  little  horn  is 
either  Dioch'tiun  (Calnietj,  or  Ualerius  ((i.  Iv.  Mayer),  or  again  Julian 


THE  MES8IAS  IS   THE  SON  OF  MAN.  421 

vision  of  tlie  night,  and  lo  a  fonrth  beast  terrible  and  wonderful 
and  exceeding  strong  ;  it  had  great  iron  teeth,  eating  and  break- 
ing in  pieces,  and  treading  down  the  rest  with  its  feet ;  and  it  was 
unlike  the  other  beasts  which  I  had  seen  before  it,  and  had  ten 
horns.  I  considered  the  horns,  and  behold  another  little  horn 
sprung  out  of  the  midst  of  them,  and  three  of  the  first  horns  were 
plucked  up  at  the  presence  tliereof  ;  and  behold  eyes  like  the  eyes 
of  a  man  were  in  this  horn,  and  a  mouth  speaking  great  things. 
I  beheld ''  till  thrones  were  placed,  and  the  Ancient  of  days  sat. 

the  Apostate.  Vespasian  too  is  at  times  identified  with  the  little  born, 
because  he  subdued  the  three  other  horns  :  Galba,  Otho,  and  V' itellius. 
We  need  not  say  that  according  to  this  view  the  ten  kings  are  not 
simultaneous  rulers. 

fi.  Another  explanation  regards  the  second  coming  of  Christ  as  the 
teriu  of  Daniel's  prophecy,  and  the  ten  kings  must  be  explained 
accordingly.  They  are  either  represented  as  preceding  the  advent  of 
Christ,  independently  of  the  Roman  empire,  or  the  latter  is  viewed  as 
still  virtually  existing,  and  as  destined  to  be  split  into  ten  kingdoms 
before  the  .second  coming  of  Christ.  This  last  theory  seems  to  satisfy 
all  the  requirements  of  Daniel's  prediction  better  than  the  preceding 
e.xplanations. 

'^  I  beheld  till  thrones  were  placed.  After  considering  the  actions  of 
the  beasts  and  of  the  horns  for  a  space  of  time,  the  prophet's  attention 
is  invited  to  another  scene.  Judgment  is  about  to  be  pronounced 
against  the  little  horn  and  its  adherents,  and  the  solemnity  and  im- 
portance of  this  event  is  clearly  shown  in  the  magnificent  description 
of  its  preparations.  It  must  be  remembered  that  this  judgment  is 
not  the  last  judgment,  as  Theodoret  and  a  number  of  the  ancient 
interpreters  have  believed,  but  that  it  precedes  the  last  judgment, 
taking  place  in  heaven,  and  having  for  judge  the  "  Ancient  of  days," 
or  God  the  Father  (cf.  Apoc.  iv.  3-11  ;  v.  5-10).  The  phenomena  of 
fire  accompanying  the  judgment  have  their  parallels  in  Dent.  iv.  24 
and  Ps.  xcvi.  (xcvii.)  3,  3  ;  the  books  are  opened  also  in  Apoc.  xx.  13. 
We  liave  seen  already  that  "  one  like  the  Son  of  man  "  is  no  one  else 
but  the  Messias.  Tlie  opinion  that  this  one  represented  either  the 
Jewish  community  (the  later  Kabbinic  commentators),  or  the  Roman 
state,  which  was  then  without  king  (cf.  I.  Mach.  viii.  36  ;  Grotius) 
evidently  contradicts  the  prophet's  context.  If,  then,  Christ's  coming 
is  here  announced,  it  may  be  asked  whether  his  first  or  his  second 
advent  is  the  object  of  Daniel's  vision.  Since  the  little  horn  repre- 
sents the  Antichrist,  and  since  Christ  is  represented  as  coming  only 
after  the  destruction  of  the  fourth  beast  and  the  little  horn,  it  follows 
that  the  second  advent  must  be  the  object  of  the  prophecy.  But  here, 
again,  a  twofold  explanation  is  possible  :  Christ's  second  advent  is 
either  his  coming  for  the  last  judgment  (Hippolytus,  Eusebius,  Theo- 
doret, Kliefoth,  Keil,  etc.;  cf.  Ex.  xix.  8  ff.),  or  it  is  the  exaltati(m 
and  the  triumph  of  the  Son  of  man,  whicli  begins  immediately  after 
the  destruction  of  Antichrist,  and  which  will  attain  the  height  of  its 
glory  in  the  la.st  judgment.     Between  the  former  and  the  latter  event 


422  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

llis  garment  was  white  as  snow,  and  tlie  hair  of  his  head  like 
clean  wool,  his  throne  like  flames  of  fire,  the  wheels  of  it  like  a 
burning  fire.  A  swift  stream  of  fire  issued  forth  from  Ijcfore  him, 
tiiousands  of  thousands  ministered  to  him,  and  ten  tliousand 
times  a  hundred  thousand  stood  before  him  :  the  judgment  sat, 
and  the  books  were  opened.  I  beheld  because  of  the  voice  of  tiic 
great  words  which  that  horn  spoke,  and  I  saw  that  the  beast  was 
slain,  and  the  body  thereof  was  destroyed,  and  given  to  tiie  fire  to 
be  burned  ;  and  that  the  power  of  the  other  beasts  was  taken 
away,  and  tliat  times  of  life  were  appointed  them  for  a  time,  and 
a  time.     1  beheld  therefore  in  the  vision  of  the  niglit,  and  lo  one' 

there  will,  therefore,  intervene  a  period  of  peace  and  C'liristiaii  liap- 
piness.  It  is  liardiy  iiecessurj'  to  note  the  difTerence  between  thia 
iiftli  kingdom  and  the  four  preceding  ones  :  the  former  were  sym- 
bolized l)y  Ijeasts,  the  last  one  is  rejjresented  by  one  like  the  Son  of 
man  ;  the  four  preceding  ones  rise  and  ])erisli  after  a  while  of  exist- 
ence ;  the  lifth  has  "everlasting  ])owei',  tiuit  shall  not  lie  taken  away 
.   .    .   and  that  shall  not  l)e  destroyed." 

If  it  is  asked  whether  this  exjylanation  does  not  favor  the  ojiinion 
of  the  C'hlliasts  or  the  Millennists,  we  may  answer  with  an  emphatic 
denial.  All  that  can  be  inferred  from  I'aniel  is  the  fifth  kingdom's 
universality  and  eternity,  and  its  opposition  to  the  four  kingdoms 
preceding  it.  These  characteristics  of  the  fifth  kingdom  are  fully 
verified  in  the  spiritual  kingdom  of  Christ  (cf.  Jo.  xviii.  30  ;  I-uke  i. 
315),  or  in  the  kingdom  of  the  blessed  in  heaven  ;  or,  again,  in  both 
taken  together.  Each  of  these  time  oi)inions  has  its  own  adherents 
among  believing  conuiu'Utators,  though  the  third  appears  to  have  the 
uiost  soKul  claims  of  pr()l)al)ility  in  its  favor.  At  the  time  of  Christ 
the  Jews  expected  the  couung  of  the  Messianic  kingdom  (cf.  Mark 
XV.  43  ;  Luke  xvii.  20  ;  xix.  11  ;  xxiii.  51) ;  alluding  to  these  hojies 
both  the  Baptist  and  the  l>ord  Idmself  announced  tluit  the  kingdom 
of  (iod  had  come  (cf.  Matt.  iii.  2  ;  iv.  17  ;  xii.  28  ;  Mark  i.  17)  ;  it  is 
also  owing  to  thesti  exi)ectations  that  our  Lord  ])roposed  his  ]iaral)les 
based  on  the  kingdom,  and  that  the  saints  are  called  the  citizens  of 
the  heavenly  kini,'-doiu  ^Hom.  i.  7  ;  I.  Cor.  i.  2;  I.  I'et.  ii.  1),  «'tc.). 
(iabriel  too  alludes  to  this  hope  in  the  (iospel  of  Lnkei.  33.  A\'e  are 
then  justilied  in  identifying,  at  least  partially,  Daniel's  fifth  kingdom 
with  Christ's  Chundi  on  earth.  Hut  other  passages  show  that  the 
same  kingdom  nuist  al.so  be  applied  to  our  heavenly  home.  In  Matt. 
XXV.  34  tlie  saints  are  after  tlu-  last  judgment  invited  to  take  ]>o.sses- 
sion  of  the  kingdom  ))repared  for  them  from  the  beginning.  In  the 
Apocalypse  the  saints  are  represented  as  reigning  furtver,  and  the  Son 
of  man  has  inscribed  on  his  thigh,  "  King  of  kings  and  Lord  of 
lords."  The  saints,  oi-  the  subjects  of  the  kingdom,  are  taken  from 
all  the  dilTerent  tuitions  and  j)eoples  and  tongues  (cf.  Matt.  xxiv.  14). 

"  One  like  the  Son  of  man.  \\'e  need  hardly  notice  the  view  of  Ilit- 
zig  and  llofmann  (\\ Cissagung  und  Krfiillung,  i.  ])p.  20!)  IT.:  Schrift- 
beweis,  Lst  ed.,  ii.  2,  pp  -AX  fT. )  that  tlie  prophet  means  merely  to  give 
a  syiubolical  n'i)re.sentatiou  of  "  tlit^  people  of   the  saints  of  the  INIost 


THE  ME8SIAS  IS  TUE  SON  OF  MAN.  423 

like  the  Son  of  man  came  with  the  clouds  of  heaven,  and  he  came 

High."  A  personal  reference  of  the  prediction  to  the  Messias  must, 
according  to  these  authors,  be  excluded.  The  first  reason  for  this  ex- 
])lanatiou  is  taken  from  the  context  of  the  prophecy,  especially  from 
vv.  18,  22,  27.  For  there  the  "saints"  are  represented  as  the  heirs 
of  the  kingdom  of  God.  Then,  again,  the  wording  of  the  prediction 
suggests  the  view  of  the  above  writers;  for  the  prophet  sees  "one 
like  the  Sou  of  man,"  as  in  v.  4,  his  vision  terminated  at  something 
like  a  lion,  and  in  v.  6  at  something  like  a  leopard.  As  therefore  the 
latter  visions  were  merely  symbols  of  the  world-monarchies,  so  must 
the  former  be  regarded  as  a  mere  symbol  of  the  divine  kingdom. 
Thirdly,  the  judgment  is  sujjposed  to  take  place  in  heaven,  where  the 
saints  will  receive  dominion.  Hitzig  appeals  also  to  Dan.  viii.  10, 
where  according  to  him  the  nation  of  saints  is  to  the  seer  the  host  of 
the  stars  of  heaven.  According  to  the  same  author  the  ])asis  of 
Daniel's  conception  of  the  Son  of  man  lies  in  his  more  developed  be- 
lief in  immortality,  and  in  his  supposed  identity  with  David,  leading 
a  heavenly  life  after  death  (cf.  lliehm,  ])p.  194  ff.). 

Hut  it  may  be  urged,  on  the  otiier  hand,  that  the  Book  of  Enoch 
(xlvi.  1;  xlviii.  2  ft'.;  Ixii.  5,  7;  Ixix.  27,  29)  and  the  Fourth  Book  of 
Esdras  (xiii.  1  ft".;  12,  32  fF. )  refer  the  passage  to  a  i)ers()nal  Messias. 
The  same  explanation  has  been  found  in  the  testimonies  cited  for  the 
Messianic  character  of  the  ])rophecy.  Then,  again,  besides  merely  typi- 
cal figures  the  vision  represents  also  p.u'sons  without  any  figurative 
veil;  this  is  especially  true  of  the  judgment-scene,  in  which  the  de- 
scrii)tion,  apart  from  the  beasts  in  vv.  11  and  12,  loses  its  figurative 
character.  This  renders  it  probable  that  the  "Son  of  nuin,"  who 
appears  in  this  same  scene,  is  not  a  mere  symbol,  but  represents  a 
real  i)erson.  Auberlen  has  drawn  another  argument  from  v.  21, 
where  the  saints  are  distinguished  from  the  "  Son  of  man."  For  they 
are  persecuted  by  the  little  horn,  oven  before  the  judgment-scene, 
while  the  "  Son  of  man  "  appears  only  during  the  judgment.  Neither 
can  the  saints  be  said  to  come  "  with  thecloudsof  heaven,"  since  this 
expression  coumionly  imjjlies  a  divine  character  of  the  api)earing  one. 
The  circumstance  that  God's  judgment-seat  is  ceen  in  heaven,  or  that 
the  nation  of  the  saints  is  to  the  seer  the  host  of  the  stars  in  heaven, 
does  not  sufficiently  account  for  the  loftiness  of  the  description.  The 
person  referred  to  must  be  the  Messianic  king  who  stands  at  the  head 
of  tlie  saints  of  the  Most  High,  and  is  (iod's  representative  upon  earth. 
The  third  Book  of  the  Sibyllines,  vv.  286  ff.,  is  right  in  considering  him 
assent  ov/jitvuOer  a'ar'  }}eXi()u){cL  Hilgenfeld,  Jl'id.  Apokalyptik,  pp. 
81  ff.).  In  him  the  Messianic  kingdom  comes  from  above  (Dan.  ii. 
34  tf.,  44  f.),  and  through  him  the  saints  of  the  Most  High  receive 
kingdom  and  dominion  (Dan.  vii.  18,  22,  27).  This  view  would  be 
rendered  more  obscure  if  it  could  be  proved  that  in  Daniel  the  concep- 
tions of  the  Messias  and  of  the  anM;el  of  Jehovah  are  combined,  as 
Hilgenfeld  (1.  c.  pp.  47  ff.)  and  fjhler  (art.  Messias  in  Herzog's 
Kealencyc.  p.  417  ;  Theol.  des  A.  T.  ii.  pp.  144,  20o)  believe.  But 
strict  ])roof  cannot  be  brought  for  such  an  identification,  even  by  aj)- 
peals  to  Dan.  x.  5  ff.,  or  vii.  13.  At  best  we  may  compare  Dan.  with 
Ezech.  i.  2G,  where  "demuth  kemar'eh  'udham  "  is  used  of  the  the- 


424  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

even  to  tlic  Ancient  of  days,  and  they  presented  liini  before  him. 
And  lie  gave  him  power  and  glory  and  a  kingdom  ;  and  all  jjcoples, 
tribes,  and  tongnes  shall  serve  him  ;  his  power  is  an  everlasting 
power  that  shall  not  be  taken  away,  and  his  kingdom  that  shall 
not  bo  destroyed,  ^[y  spirit  trembled,  I  Daniel  v.as  aflfrighled  at 
these  things,  and  the  visions  of  my  head  tronbled  me. 

I  went  near  to  one  of  them  that  stood  by,  and  asked  the  trnth 
of  him  concerning  all  these  things.  And  he  told  nie  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  words  and  instructed  me  :  These  four  great  beasts 
are  four  kingdoms,  which  shall  arise  out  of  the  earth.  But  the 
saints  of  the  most  high  God  shall  take  the  kingdom,  and  they 
shall  })ossoss  tlie  kingdom  for  ever  and  ever.  After  this,  I  was 
desirous  to  be  fully  instructed  concerning  the  fourth  beast,  which 
was  very  different  from  all  the  others,  and  exceeding  terrible  :  his 
leeth  and  claws  were  of  iron,  he  devoured  and  broke  in  pieces, 
and  tiie  rest  he  stamped  upon  with  his  feet  ;  and  concerning  the 
t(Mi  horns  that  he  had  on  his  head,  and  concerning  the  other  that 
came  up,  before  which  three  horns  fell ;  and  of  that  horn  that 
had  eyes,  and  a  mouth  speaking  great  things,  and  was  greater 
tlian  the  rest.  I  beheld,  and  io  that  horn  made  war  against  the 
saints,  and  prevailed  over  them,  till  the  Ancient  of  days  came  and 
gave  judgment  to  the  saints  of  the  Most  High,  and  the  time  came 
and  the  saints  obtained  the  kingdom.  And  thus  he  .said  :  The 
fourth  beast  shall  be  the  fourth  kingdom  upon  earth,  which  shall 
be  greater  than  all  the  kingdoms,  and  shall  devour  the  whole  earth, 
jind  shall  tread  it  down,  and  break  it  in  i)ieces.  And  the  ten  horns 
of  the  same  kingdom  shall  be  ten  kings,  and  another  shall  rise  up 
after  them,  and  he  shall  be  mightier  than  the  former,  and  he  shall 
bring  down  three  kings.  And  he  shall  speak  words  against  the 
Most  High,  and  shall  crush  the  saints  of  the  Most  High,  and  he 
shall  think  himself  able  to  change  times  and  laws,  and  they  shall 
1)0  delivered  into  his  liand  until  a  time,  and  times,  and  half  a  time. 
And  judgment  shall  sit  that  his  power  maybe  taken  away,  and  be 
l)roken  in  pieces,  and  perish  even  to  the  end.  And  that  the  king- 
dom and  power  and  the  greatness  of  the  kingdom  under  the  whole 
heav(Mi  may  be  given  to  the  people  of  Hk;  saints  of  the  ^fost  High, 
wliose  kingdom   is  an  everlasting  kingdom,  and  all  kings  shall 

ophany.  Fiiiully,  it  is  to  lie  noted  tluit  tlir  iiicrc  ligurativo  syiiiliols  of 
the  i)ri)pli('<-y  iiif  cxiiliiiiu'd  l)y  tlic  niitrt'l,  wliilc  no  cxiihmatioii  of  tin) 
Son  of  iiiiin  is  jriv<'ii.  so  tliat  lie  caimot  lie  rcganli'd  as  a  mfiT  syiiil)ol 
(cf.  Hii'liui,  ".Messianic  Proplu'cy,"  pp.  Hit  llj. 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SON  OF  MAN.  425 

servo  him,  and  shall  obey  him.  Hitherto  is  the  end  of  the  word. 
I  Daniel  was  much  troubled  with  my  thoughts,  and  my  counte- 
nance was  changed  in  me,  but  I  kept  the  word  in  my  heart. 

Corollary. 

1.  It  will  be  found  instructive  to  study  the  consideration 
on  the  Son  of  man  proposed  by  Baldeusperger  (Das  Selbst- 
bewusstsein  Jesu,  pp.  1G9  ff.).  Jesus  called  himself  neither 
"son  of  David"  nor  "Christ,"  but  "Son  of  man."  He 
appears  to  have  intended  to  break  in  this  manner  with  the 
current  Messianic  ideas  of  the  Synagogue.  It  has  been 
urged  indeed  that  the  term  "Son  of  man"  was  not  at  all 
current  among  tlie  Jews  as  a  JMessianic  title,  so  that  Jesus 
proposed  himself  to  his  countrymen  as  a  riddle,  or  em])loyed 
the  word  as  a  symbol  of  an  esoteric  school;  or,  again,  he 
represented  himself  by  the  term  as  the  ideal  man,  or  finally, 
implied  his  own  humiliation  by  applying  the  name  to  him- 
self. The  thesis  that  the  "  Son  of  man  "  was  not  connected 
in  the  mind  of  the  Jews  with  the  Messias  is  inferred  from 
John  xii.  34:  "The  multitude  answered  him:  We  have 
lieard  out  of  the  law  that  the  Christ  abideth  for  ever  ;  and 
how  sayest  thou :  The  Son  of  man  must  be  lifted  up  ?  "Who 
is  this  Son  of  man?"  But  a  moment's  reflection  shows 
that  this  passage  identifies  the  "  Son  of  man "  witli  tlie 
Messias;  for  it  does  not  iuiply  any  doubt  as  to  the  meaning 
of  the  "Son  of  man,"  but  expresses  surprise  at  a  "Son  of 
man  "  who  does  not  seem  to  agree  with  the  current  idea  of 
the  Messias. 

2.  There  is  another  proof  for  the  opinion  that  "  the  Sou 
of  man  "  was  not  connected  with  the  Messias  in  the  Syna- 
gogue. Jesus  called  himself  "  the  Son  of  man  "  very  early 
in  his  public  life,  while  the  disci])les  did  not  acknowledge 
the  Messiasship  of  Jesus  till  a  later  period.  But  this  could 
not  have  been  the  case  had  the  name  "  Son  of  man  "  been 
connected  with  the  Messianic  dignity. — This  exception  is 
wholly  based  on  a  false  premise:  The  first  time  that  Jesus 
applies  the  name  "Son  of  man"  to  himself  lie  speaks  to 


42(J  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

Nicodenius  in  tlie  privacy  of  the  night.  Tiie  next  time 
tlie  name  is  assumed  by  Jesus  in  the  beginning  of  liis  sec- 
ond year  of  teaching,  after  he  has  cured  the  man  sick  of 
the  palsy;  here  lie  attributes  to  the  "Son  of  man"  tlie 
power  to  forgive  sins.  The  third  time  Jesus  applies  the 
name  to  himself  about  the  Passover-feast  of  his  second 
year  of  public  life,  when  he  attributes  to  the  "  Son  of  man  " 
the  power  over  the  Sabbath.  After  this  almost  a  year 
elapses  before  Jesus  uses  the  term  again  in  his  Eucharis- 
tic  discourse.  It  is  therefore  quite  clear  that  Jesus  does 
not  use  the  name  "  Son  of  man  "  so  early  and  so  fre- 
(puuitly  in  the  presence  of  his  disciples  that  the  latter 
ought  to  have  been,  on  that  account,  fully  conversant  with 
his  Messianic  character,  even  in  the  earlier  })art  of  his  i)ub- 
lic  life.  The  disciples  were  of  slow  nnderstaiuling  in  the 
truths  ])ertaining  to  the  person  and  the  oflice  of  their  mas- 
ter, so  that  their  neglect  of  his  occasional  self-im})osed  name 
is  not  at  all  surprising. 

;>.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  priori  probable  that  the 
term  "Son  of  man,''  as  occurring  in  the  teaching  of  Jesus, 
is  only  another  instance  of  dogmatic  development  of  tiieo- 
logical  ideas  that  had  been  current  even  in  the  Old  '^Fes- 
tament.  There  is  first  a  series  of  instances  in  which  the 
term  "Son  of  man  "  has  a  meaning  similar  to  that  which 
it  has  in  the  books  of  Daniel  and  of  Enoch  (Matt.  x.  23; 
xiii.  41;  xvi.  27;  xix.  28;  xxiv.  27;  Acts  vii.  Tifi;  A})oc.  i. 
13;  xiv.  14;  John  v.  27).  In  both  series  the  bearer  of  the 
name  is  represented  as  the  Lord  of  glory  and  majesty. 
Besides  all  this,  Ilolsten,  following  the  initiative  of  Usteri, 
has  analyzed  the  42  instances  in  which  the  term  "Son  of 
nnm  "  occurs  in.  the  synoptic  fiospels,  and  has  found  that 
its  meaning  is  identified  with  that  of  the  Messias,  because 
all  its  nitiibiites  are  contained  in  or  derived  from  the  con- 
ce})t  of  the  Messias,  while  they  are  foreign  to  the  concept 
of  a  mere  man.  Kememl)ering,  then,  that  Jesus  did  not 
add  nuM-ely  formal  terms  to  the  theological  teaching  of  the 
Old  'I'estament,  it  is  probable  that  the  term  "Son  of  man  " 
had  in  the  Old  'J'estament  the  same  meaning  that  he  gave  it. 


THE  MESSIA8  18  THE  SON  OF  MAN.  427 

4.  It  follows  from  all  this  that  we  must  reject  the  opin- 
ions of  a  number  of  scholars  touching  the  value  of  the 
name  "  Son  of  num."  Weisse,  e.g.,  nia|i;es  the  name  "  an 
unstamped  concept;"  Keim,  "a  name  of  concealment  and 
of  manifestation;"  Weizsiicker  attributes  to  the  term  "an 
ambiguous  profundity;"  Weiss  finds  in  the  name  the  des- 
ignation of  "  something  singular  among  the  children  of 
men."  Bruckner  is  right  in  maintaining  that  "  never  and 
at  no  time  has  [the  name  '  Son  of  man']  served  to  conceal 
and  to  cover  up  the  Messianic  intentions  [of  Jesus];"  it 
rather  served  "  to  manifest  the  kind  of  his  Messiasship." 
Usteri  has  shown  that  the  synthesis  of  the  glorious  with 
the  opprobrious  attributes  given  to  the  "Son  of  man  "is 
explicable  only  on  the  supposition  that  the  name  "  Son  of 
man  "  expresses  the  peculiar  Messianic  vocation  of  Jesus. 

5.  And  how  can  we  maintain  that  Jesus  em^^loyed  the 
name  in  an  obscure  or  an  ambiguous  or  an  esoteric  mean- 
ing, seeing  that  the  disciples  were  not  at  all  afraid  to  in- 
quire concerning  doubtful  expressions  and  phrases?  But 
they  never  inquired  about  the  meaning  of  this  name.  Nor 
can  it  be  said  that  the  "  Son  of  man  "  merely  signifies  tiie 
"  ideal  man,"  his  work  consisting  in  civilizing  the  human 
race.  For  this  would  be  to  carry  our  own  manner  of 
thinking  and  speaking  back  for  over  a  thousand  years,  into 
a  period  where  there  was  no  trace  of  such  language  or  ex- 
pression. 

6.  It  follows,  then,  tliat  Jesus  employed  this  title  in 
speaking  of  himself,  not  in  order  to  conceal  his  person  and 
his  mission,  but  to  rectify  the  current  Messianic  idea  of  the 
times.  The  names  "Christ  "  and  "son  of  David"  carried 
with  them  ideas  wliich  Jesus  did  not  wish  to  fulfil,  and 
the  accomjilishment  of  which  lie  did  not  intend  to  prom- 
ise. Hence  he  chooses  a  name  wliich  has  not  yet  been 
abused  in  this  manner,  and  in  which  the  glorious  and  the 
ignominious  attributes  of  the  Messias  are  properly  tem- 
pered, while  the  name  itself  connects  the  person  of  its 
bearer  unmistakably  with  the  prophetic  promises  of  the 
01(1  'I'cstament. 


428  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  MESSIAS   IS  THE  SAVIOUR.      Is.  Li.  1-Lir.  13;  LXii. 
IXTRODUCTIOX. 

1.  Connection  of  the  Pkophecies  with  the  Context. 

— The  second  great  division  of  the  second  part  of  Isaias 
begins  with  c.  xlviii.  The  snbject  of  the  whole  treatise  is 
described  in  Isaias  xl.  3:  "her  iniquity  is  forgiven,"  or 
"her  ransom  has  been  paid."  The  first  canto  treats  in 
general  of  the  second  redeemer,  the  Servant,  and  of  his 
work,  xlix.  1-26;  in  the  two  following  cantos  the  manner 
and  the  effects  of  the  redcnqition  are  explained.  For  1.  1- 
11  shows  that  the  disobedience  of  8ion  will  be  expiated  by 
the  obedience  of  the  Servant's  suffering  and  death;  li.  1- 
lii.  12  promises,  by  way  of  a  dialogue,  salvation  to  the 
jieople  as  an  effect  of  its  liberation,  and  stirs  up  Sion  to 
the  greatest  joy.  The  fifth  canto  of  the  third  part  in  the 
second  great  division  of  Isaias,  beginning  with  chapter 
Iviii.,  contains  sentiments  similar  to  those  contained  in  the 
parts  just  described.  After  recommending  in  the  first  two 
cantos  true  internal  justice,  the  prophet  goes  on  recom- 
mending to  the  people  the  goodly  effects  of  tiie  Messianic 
reign  ami  their  author.  Thus  it  comes  to  })a8s  tliat  in  c. 
Ixii.  1-12  he  excites  the  ])ooi)le  to  a  desire  after  the  new 
Jerusalem. 

2.  The  Messianic  Character  of  these  Passages.-^/. 
llabbinic:  testimonies:  IJabbi  Kk'azar  says:  If  Israel  would 
rei)ent,  they  would  l)e  redeemed,  as  it  is  said.  "  Return  ye 
backsliding  cliildrcn.  and  I  will  heal  your  baekslidings." 
b'alil)i  .loslma  saiil    unto  him:  "lias   it    not    been    alreatly 


THE  ME8SIAS  IS  THE  SAVIOUR.  429 

said:  '  You  were  sold  for  iiaiiglit,  and  ye  shall  be  redeemed 
without  mouey  ? '  You  were  sold  among  the  idolators;  and 
you  shall  be  redeemed  without  money,  i.e.,  without  re- 
pentance and  good  works"  (of.  Is.  Hi.  3).  Talmud,  Sanhe- 
driu,  fol.  97,  col.  3. 

Yalkut  on  Is.  Hi.  7  has  the  following  exposition :  "  In  the 
hour  when  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  his  name,  redeems 
Israel,  three  days  before  Messias,  comes  Elias,  and  stands 
upon  the  mountains  of  Israel  and  weeps  and  mourns  for 
them,  and  says  to  them,  'Ye  mountains  of  the  land  of 
Israel,  how  long  shall  you  stand  in  a  dry  and  desolate 
land?'  And  his  voice  is  heard  from  the  world's  end  to 
the  world's  end,  and  after  that  he  says  to  them:  'Peace 
has  come  to  the  world,  peace  has  come  to  the  world; '  as. it 
is  said :  '  How  beautiful  upon  the  mountains  are  the  feet 
of  him  that  bringeth  good  tidings.  .  .  .'  And  when  the 
wicked  hear  it,  they  rejoice  and  they  say,  one  to  another : 
'  Peace  has  come  to  us.'  On  the  second  day  he  shall  stand 
upon  the  mountains  of  Israel  and  shall  say:  'Good  has 
come  to  the  world,  good  has  come  to  the  world;'  for  it  is 
said, 'that  bringeth  good  tidings  of  good.'  On  the  third 
day  he  shall  come  and  stand  upon  the  mountains  of  Israel, 
and  say:  '  Salvation  has  come  to  the  woi'ld,  salvation  has 
come  to  the  world ;'  for  it  is  said,  '  that  pnblisheth  salva- 
tion.' And  when  he  shall  see  the  wicked  say  so,  he  will 
say  unto  Sion,  'thy  God  reigneth.'" 

h.  The  text  of  the  passage  itself  shows  its  Messianic 
reference:  in  li.  4  the  prophet  announces  salvation  for  all 
the  nations,  and  that  by  means  of  the  law  and  the  doctrine. 
Hence  there  can  be  no  question  here  of  the  liberation 
tln-ongh  Cyrus.  In  verse  G  this  salvation  is  represented  as 
everlasting,  and  therefore  must  the  Saviour  mentioned  in 
verse  5  be  distinct  from  Cyrus.  The  same  lasting  charac- 
ter of  the  promised  salvation  is  again  inculcated  in  verse  8, 
and  in  verse  14:  tlie  liberator  must  be  identified  with  the 
Servant  of  whom  there  is  question  in  the  preceding  chajiters 
(xlix.    0;    xlii.  7).     Tiie   address    in   verse    IG    cannot   be 


430  TIIK  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

directed  to  any  one  but  the  Lord's  Servjint:  it  does  not  fit 
the  people,  and  an  address  to  the  prophet  would  require 
too  violent  and  sudden  a  transition.  The  new  heavens,  of 
which  there  is  question  in  verse  IG,  appear  to  inaugurate 
those  spoken  of  in  Ixv.  17,  which  latter  evidently  refer  to 
the  Messianic  times  (cf.  Rom.  viii.  21;  II.  Pet.  iii.  13). 
The  nuignilicent  promises  concerning  the  new  Jerusalem 
render  it  impossible  to  limit  c.  Ixii.  to  the  liberation  of  the 
Jews  from  the  Babylonian  ca2)tivity. 

Is.  LI.  1-LII.  12. 

'  Give  ear  to  me,  you  tliat  follow  that  which  is  just,  and  you 
that  seek  the  Lord  ;  look  unto  the  rock  whence  you  are  liewu,  and 
to  the  hole  of  the  pit  from  wliich  you  are  dug  out.  Look  unto 
Abraham  your  father,  and  to  Sara  that  bore  you  ;  for  I  called 
liiui  all  alone,  and  blessed  him,  and  multiplied  him.  The  Lord 
tiiereforc  will  comfort  Sion,  and  will  comfort  all  tiie  luius  thereof, 
and  he  will  make  iier  desert  as  a  place  of  pleasure,  and  lier  wilder- 
ness as  tlie  garden  of  the  Lord.  Joy  and  gladness  siiall  l)e  found 
therein,  thanksgiving  and  the  voice  of  praise.  Hearken  unto  jue, 
O  my  people,  and  give  ear  to  me,  O  my  tribe,  for  a  law  shall  go 
forth  from  me,  and  my  judgment  shall  rest  to  ho  a  light  of  tlie 
nations.  My  just  one  is  near  at  hand,  my  Saviour  is  gone  forth, 
and  my  arms  shall  judge  tlie  peoples  ;  the  islands  shall  look  for 
me,  and  shall  jjatiently  wait  for  my  arm.  Lift  up  your  eyes  to 
heaven,  and  look  down  to  the  earth  beneath,  for  the  heavens 
shall  vanish  like  smoke,  and  the  earth  shall  be  worn  away  like  a 
garment,  and  the  inhabitants  thereof  shall  perish  in  like  manner  ; 
but  my  salvation  shall  be  for  ever,  and  my  justice  shall  not  fail. 
Hearken  to  me,  you  that  know  what  is  just,  my  people  who  have 
my  law  in  their  heart ;  fear  ye  not  the  reproach  of  men,  and  be 
not  afraid  of  their  blasphemies.     For  the  worm  shall  eat  them  up 

'Give  ear  to  me  'llic  prophet  i.'^  about  to  deseiibc  llie  glory  iind 
llic  e.vallaliou  ol  I  lie  new  .lei  iisalein,  in  sueii  a  inaiiiier.  however,  us 
to  draw  attention  lo  the  universality  of  tlu;  eoniing  salvation.  'I'iio 
pious  ones  are  icniinded  Ilia!  as  Ciod  drew  from  tlie  .seed  of  Aliraliam 
and  from  the  eldldliss  Sara  the  wiiole  Israelite  nation,  .so  will  lie 
<lraw  fortii  fioiii  the  ruins  of  Sion  a  universal  .salvation,  which  ia 
near  .•ind  will  be  everlasting— outl.'isling even  the  universe,  and  being 
unassailable  by  any  iiostile  atlaeU. 


THE  ME8SIAS  IS  THE  SAVIOUR.  431 

as  a  garment,  and  the  moth  shall  consume  them  as  wool  ;  but 
my  salvation  shall  be  for  ever,  and  my  justice  from  generation  to 
generation. 

Arise,  ^  arise,  put  on  strength,  O  thou  arm  of  the  Lord  ;  arise 
as  in  the  days  of  old,  in  the  ancient  generations.  Hast  not  thou 
struck  the  proud  one,  and  wounded  the  dragon  ?  Hast  not  thou 
dried  up  the  sea,  the  water  of  the  mighty  deep,  who  madest  the 
(Icptii  of  the  sea  a  way,  that  the  delivered  might  pass  over  ?  And 
now  they  that  are  redeemed  by  the  Lord  shall  return  and  shall 
come  into  Sion  singing  praises,  and  joy  everlasting  sliall  be  U2:)on 
their  heads  ;  they  shall  obtain  joy  and  gladness,  sorrow  and 
mourning  shall  flee  away.  I,  I  myself  will  comfort  you  ;  who  art 
thou  that  thou  shouldst  be  afraid  of  a  mortal  man,  and  of  the  son 
of  man,  who  shall  wither  away  like  grass?  And  thou  hast  for- 
gotten the  Lord  thy  maker,  who  stretched  out  the  heavens,  and 
founded  the  earth;  and  thou  hast  been  afraid  continually,  all  the 
day,  at  the  presence  of  his  fury  who  afflicted  thee  ;  where  is  now 
the  fury  of  the  oppressor  ?  He  shall  quickly  come  that  is  going 
to  open  unto  you,  and  he  shall  not  kill  unto  utter  destruction, 
neither  shall  his  bread  fail.  But  I  am  the  Lord  thy  God  who 
trouble  the  sea,  and  the  waves  thereof  swell ;  the  Lord  of  hosts  is 
my  name.  I  have  put  my  words  in  thy  mouth,  and  have  pro- 
tected thee  in  the  shadow  of  my  hand,  that  thou  niightest  plant 
the  heavens,  and  found  the  eartli,  and  niightest  say  to  Sion,  thou 
art  my  people. 

^  Arise,  arise,  stand  up,  O  Jerusalem,  which  hast  drunk  at  the 
hand  of  the  Lord  the  cup  of  his  wrath  ;  thou  hast  drunk  even  to 
the  bottom  of  the  cup  of  dead  sleep,  and  thou  hast  drunk  even  to 
the   dregs.     There  is  none  that  can  ujDhold  her  among  all  the 

'■^  Arise,  arise,  put  on  strength.  The  prophet  etiniestly  implores  the 
divine  power,  wliich  formerly  assisted  the  Israelites  so  signally, 
to  eli'ect  this  salvation.  Certain  of  being  licird,  lie  l)ehol(l.s"in  liis 
mental  visit)n  the  returning  exiles,  as  tliey  go  up  to  Jerusalem  re- 
joicing and  triumphant.  And  since  God  himself  has  taken  the  de- 
fence of  liis  people,  why  fear  the  fury  and  the  power  of  men  ?  The 
Saviour  God  will  surely  come,  will  leiiiove  all  obstacles,  and  fultil 
his  promises  to  restore  a  new  eternal  kingtlom  in  the  midst  of  his 
]ieople. 

^  Arise,  arise,  stand  up.  Jerusalem  is  therefore  bid  to  rise  from  her 
lowly  and  abject  coudiliou.  It  is  true,  she  has  experienced  the  fury 
and  the  wrath  of  the  Lord  ;  she  has  been  stricken  with  a  plague 
which  no  man  can  heal,  since  her  sons  have  been  led  away  caiilives 
or  have  been  slain  ;  but  God  is  about  to  stay  his  auger,  and  to  atijict 
Sion's  enemies. 


482  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

cliilflivn  that  slic  Iiatli  brought  forth,  and  thofo  is  none  tliat  tak«th 
hi'r  l)y  the  liaiul  ainontj  all  the  children  that  she  hath  Ijroiight  up. 
There  are  two  thini^s  that  have  ha{)i)ened  to  thee  :  who  shall  be 
sorry  for  thee?  desolation  and  destruction,  and  famine,  and  the 
sword  ;  who  shall  comfort  thee  ?  Thy  children  are  cast  forth,  they 
have  slept  at  the  head  of  all  the  ways,  as  the  wild  ox  that  is 
snared,  full  of  the  indignation  of  the  Lord,  of  the  rebuke  of  thy 
God.  Therefore  hear  this,  thou  poor  little  one,  and  that  art 
drunk,  but  not  with  wine.  Thus  saitli  the  sovereign  the  L<nd, 
and  thy  God,  who  will  light  for  his  people  :  Behold,  I  have  taken 
out  of  thy  hand  the  cup  of  dead  sleep,  the  dregs  of  the  cuj)  of  my 
indignation,  thou  shalt  not  drink  it  again  any  more.  And  T  will 
put  it  in  the  hand  of  them  tluit  have  oppressed  thee,  and  have 
said  to  thy  soul  :  Bow  down  that  we  may  go  over  ;  and  tliou  hast 
laid  thy  body  as  the  ground,  and  as  a  way  to  them  that  went 
over. 

Ai'i.se,*  ai'ise,  jml  on  thy  .strength.  ()  8ion,  put  on  the  garments 
of  thy  glory,  ()  Jerusalem,  the  city  of  the  Holy  One  :  for  hence- 
forth the  nncircumcised  and  the  unclean  shall  no  more  pass 
through  thee.  Shake  thyself  from  the  dust,  ari.se,  sit  up,  ()  Jeru- 
salem ;  loose  the  bonds  from  oft"  thy  neck,  O  captive  daughter  of 
Sion.  For  thus  saith  the  Lord  :  You  were  sold  for  naught,  and 
you  shall  be  redeemed  without  money.  For  thus  saith  the  Lord 
God  :  My  people  went  down  into  Egyi)t  at  the  beginning  to  sojourn 
there  ;  and  the  A.ssyriaii  hath  oppressed  them  without  any  cause 
at  all.  And  now  what  liave  1  here?  saith  the  Lord,  for  my  i)eople 
is  taken  away  for  naught.  They  that  rule  over  them  treat  them 
unjustly,  saith  the  Lord,  and  my  name  is  continually  blasphemed 
all  the  day  long.  Tiiereforc  my  people  shall  know  my  name  \i\ 
that  day  ;  for  1  myself  that  si)oke,  behold  1  am  here. 

How  bi'autiful '■  upon  the  mountains  are  the  feet  of  him  that 
bringeth  good    tidings,  and  tiiat  i)reacheth  jjeace  ;   of  him  that 

*  Arise,  arise,  put  on  thy  strength.  Jerusalem  is  therefore  bidden  to 
exult  willi  tlie  most  lively  cNpicssioiis  tif  joy  aiHi  gladness,  because 
the  Lord  will  be  present  lo  liis  jieople  o|)iMesse(l  l)y  foreign  iialiou.s, 
and  for  the  sake  of  liis  own  glory  lie  will  prove  hini.self  a  Saviour. 

'  How  beautiful  upon  the  mountains.  The  glad  tidings  have  ah  tady 
l)een  brought  lo  the  city,  and  riglitlv  do  all  classes  of  llie  nation  re- 
joice over  the  jiower  of  the  Lord  as  maiiifesled  before  all  the  woild, 
and  over  the  salvation  of  liie  Lord  as  otTered  to  every  one.  But 
in  order  lo  sliare  in  this  salvation,  the  Israelites  must  follow  llie 
Lord  as  their  leader,  who  will  grant  them  an  honorable  leturu  out  of 
ibo  haul  of  e.xile. 


THE  MESSIAS  IS   THE  SAVIOUR.  433 

slioweth  forth  good,  that  preacheth  salvation,  that  saitli  to  Siou  : 
Thy  God  shall  reign  !  The  voice  of  thy  watchmen  :  they  have 
lifted  up  their  voice,  they  shall  praise  together,  for  they  shall  see 
eye  to  eye  when  the  Lord  shall  convert  Sion.  Rejoice  and  give 
praise  together,  O  ye  deserts  of  Jerusalem,  for  the  Lord  hath 
comforted  his  people,  he  hath  redeemed  Jerusalem.  The  Lord 
hath  prepared  his  holy  arm  in  the  sight  of  all  the  Gentiles,  and 
all  the  ends  of  the  earth  shall  see  the  salvation  of  our  God.  De- 
part, depart,  go  ye  out  from  thence,  touch  no  unclean  thing :  go 
out  of  the  midst  of  her,  be  ye  clean,  you  that  carry  the  vessels  of 
the  Lord.  For  you  shall  not  go  out  in  a  tumult,  neither  shall 
you  make  haste  by  flight,  for  the  Lord  will  go  before  you,  and  the 
God  of  Lsrael  will  gather  you  together. 

Is.    LXII. 

t^tr"  Sion's  sake,  I  will  not  hold  my  peace,  and  for  the  sake  of 
Jerusalem  I  will  not  rest,  till  her  just  one  come  forth  as  bright- 
ness, and  her  Saviour  be  lighted  as  a  lamp.  And  the  Gentiles 
shall  see  thy  just  one,  and  all  kings  thy  glorious  one  ;  and  thou 
shalt  be  called  by  a  new  name,  which  the  mouth  of  the  Lord  shall 
name.  And  thou  shalt  be  a  crown  of  glory  in  the  hand  of  tlie 
Lord,  and  a  royal  diadem  in  the  hand  of  thy  God.  Thou  shalt  no 
more  be  called  "  Forsaken,"  and  thy  land  shall  no  more  be  called 
"  Desolate  ;  "  but  thou  shalt  be  called  "  My  pleasure  in  her,"  and 
thy  land  "  Inhabited  ;"  because  the  Lord  hath  been  well  pleased 
with  thee,  and  thy  land  shall  be  inhabited.  For  the  young  man 
shall  dwell  with  the  virgin,  and  thy  children  shall  dwell  in  thee. 
And  the  bridegroom  shall  rejoice  over  the  bride,  and  thy  God 
shall  rejoice  over  thee. 

LTpon '  thy  walls,  O  Jerusalem,  I  have  aiipointed  watchmen,  all 

Tor  Sion's  sake,  I  will  not  hold  my  peace.  The  more  grievously  the 
nation  h;is  beeu  oppressed,  the  greater  is  ihe  necessity  to  repeat  again 
and  again  God's  niiglily  proniisL'S  of  salvation  in  order  to  console 
and  to  strengthen  Iheatliicted  lieartsof  the  multitude.  Hence,  again. 
Ihis  absolute  promise  of  liberation  and  the  glowing  description  of 
Ihe  future  happ}^  condition  of  the  Jewish  people.  But  all  nations 
will  share  this  great  hapjiiness,  so  that  Sion  will  manifest  the  glory 
of  God  to  the  whole  world,  because  in  Sion  will  reside  God's  peace 
and  happiness. 

■>  Upon  thy  walls,  0  Jerusalem.  Till  this  salvation  of  Ihe  people  will 
be  acconiplislied  tJotl  will  grant  his  children  men  who  will  prejiare 
them  for  their  future  liappiuess,  and  who  will  be  special  intercessors 


484  TJIhJ  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

(lie  (lay  and  all  the  iiii^lil,  tliuy  .shall  never  hold  (iieir  peace.  You 
(hat  are  iiiiiidful  nf  the  Lord  hold  not  your  peace,  and  give  him 
no  silence  till  he  establish,  and  till  he  make  Jern.salem  a  praise  in 
the  earth.  The  Lord  hath  sworn  by  his  right  hand,  and  by  the 
arm  of  his  strength  :  Surely  I  will  no  more  give  thy  corn  to  be 
meat  for  thy  enemies,  and  the  .sons  of  the  strangers  shall  not 
drink  thy  wine,  for  which  tiiou  hast  labored.  For  they  that 
gather  it  shall  cat  it  and  sliall  praise  the  Lord  ;  and  that  bring 
it  together  shall  drink  it  in  my  holy  courts.  Go  through,  go 
through  the  gates,  prepare  the  way  for  the  people,  make  the  road 
plain,  pick  out  tlie  stones,  and  lift  up  the  standard  to  the  peoples. 
Behold  the  Lord  hath  made  it  to  be  heard  in  the  ends  of  the  earth, 
tell  the  daughter  of  Sion  :  Behold  thy  Saviour  cometh  ;  behold 
his  reward  is  with  him,  and  his  work  before  him.  And  they  shall 
call  them,  "The  holy  people,  the  redeemed  of  the  Lord  ! "  But 
tlu)U  shall  be  called  :  "A  city  Sought  after,  and  not  Forsaken." 

CoitOl.LAUY. 

Tlioiigli  tlie  Jews  nuiy  luive  identified  ;it  first  the  salva- 
tion })roniised  by  Isiiius  witli  that  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity,  they  ninst  have  seen  after  their  return  that  these 
promises  regarded  a  still  future  Messianic  age. 

in  their  bchidf  before  the  divine  niajc'^ty.  Besides,  God  promi.ses 
perfect  safely  iind  fertility  of  the  land,  iind  he  inviles  all  lo  share  in 
Sion's  s;ilvalii>n,  and  lo  niake  conunon  cause  with  the  holy  people  of 
God  (cf.  Kuiibeub.,  in  loc). 


THE  MESSIAS  THE  ANGEL  OF  THE  TESTAMENT.  435 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  MESSIAS  WILL  BE  THE   ANGEL  OF  THE  TESTA- 
MENT.   Mal.  II.  17-III.  6. 

Introduction". 

The  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecy. — Tlie 

reference  of  the  pro})liecy  to  the  Messiiis  iiiiiy  l)c  (Jerivcd 
from  the  meaning  of  three  expressions:  "Angel  of  the 
Testiiment,"  "the  Lord,"  and  "my  Angel." 

1,  The  Phrase  "  my  Angel  "  denotes  John  the  Baptist.  — 
The  expression  is  an  allusion  to,  or  repetition  of.  Is.  xl.  )5; 
the  people  had  complained  (Mal.  ii.  17)  that  the  Messianic 
promises  had  not  been  accomi)lislied.  Hence  Malachias  had 
the  best  of  reasons  to  repeat  Isaias'  j^rophecy,  thus  showing 
that  it  would  surely  be  fulfilled  in  its  own  good  time. 
The  expression  "  he  shall  prepare  the  way  before  my  face  " 
rejieats  the  prediction  of  Is.  xl.  3;  Ivii.  14;  Ixii.  10,  iu 
which  passages  there  is  question  of  the  preparation  of  the 
way  for  the  coming  Messias.  Hengstenberg,  Eichhorn, 
Theiner,  and  a  few  others  are  of  oj^inion  that  this  "angel" 
denotes  a  series  of  persons  who  must  })repare  the  way  for 
the  Messias.  But  the  context  of  the  prophecy  seems  to 
require  that  the  coming  of  the  "angel"  is  a  chronological 
sign  of  the  approaching  Messias.  If  there  were  question 
of  a  series  of  "  angels,"  they  could  not  furnish  such  a 
chronological  determination.  AVhether  this  herald  sent  to 
jjrepare  the  Messias'  way  will  be  an  angel  as  in  Ex.  xxxiii. 
1,  or  mere  man,  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty  from 
the  words  of  the  text.  But  starting  from  the  analogy 
between  the  present  passage  and   Mal.   iv.  5,  it  becomes 


430  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

])rob;il)le  tliut  the  i)ro})ariiigiin_i;el  is  ;i  iium;  this  probability 
increases  still  more  if  we  consider  that  the  Messias  himself 
will  be  !i  man  (cf.  Is.  vii.  14;  Jer.  xxxi.  22;  Mich.  v.  2).  For 
us  Christians  it  has  been  determined  in  the  New  Testament 
that  the  preparing  angel  is  a  man,  and  none  other  than 
John  the  Hai)tist  (cf.  Matt.  iii.  3;  xi.  lU;  ]\rark  i.  2;  Luke 
i.  17;  iii.  4).  The  opinion  (Harh.)  (hat  the  angel  literally 
refers  to  St.  Michael  (cf.  Dan.  xii.  1),  and  typically  to  John 
the  Baptist,  is  not  only  against  the  context  of  the  proj)hecy, 
but  also  against  the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  Fathers, 
who  regard  the  passage  as  referi'ing  to  John  the  Baptist 
(cf.  Kilber,  Analysis  Biblica,  ed.  II.  i.  525).  Keinkc  gives 
the  Jewish  opinion  about  the  Messias  the  son  of  Joseph, 
and  about  the  devastating  ajigel  who  will  destroy  all  the 
people's  enemies  (Keiiike,  Mai.  p.  455).  There  can  be  no 
doubt  as  to  the  fact  that  Jewish  tradition  coiisideivd  the 
"angel"  as  preparatory  to  tiie  i\lessias;  for  Pirfjue  de 
K.  Eliezer,  c.  2!),  refers  Mai.  iii.  I  to  Klias  as  ]u-ei)aring  the 
way  for  the  Messias.  In  Bemidbai-  K.  17  (ed.  Warsh.  p. 
09,  a.)  Mai.  iii.  4  seems  to  be  ai)plied  to  the  acceptable 
sacrifices  in  the  Messianic  days.  On  Mai.  iii.  IG  V^ayyiki-a 
K.  ;54  (ed.  Warsh.  p.  51,  b.  line  4  from  the  bottom)  has  the 
following  comment:  "If  anyone  in  former  times  did  the 
commandment,  the  pro})hets  wrote  it  down.  But  now, 
when  a  man  observes  the  commandment,  who  writes  it 
down?  Elias  and  the  king  Messias  and  the  Holy  One, 
blessed  be  his  name,  seal  it  at  their  hands,  aiul  a  memorial 
book  is  written,  as  it  is  written  Mai.  iii.  1(J."  The  ])romise 
of  the  following  verse  17  is  also  extended  to  Messianic 
days  in  Shemoth  M.  18.  According  to  the  tiadition  of  the 
Synagogue,  therefore,  the  j)rediction  evidently  has  a  Mes- 
sianic meaning.  And  even  the  Jews  might  have  inferred 
from  this  that  the  "  angel  "  would  be  a  man  sent  to  prc])are 
the  Messias'  way. 

2.  The  Lord  is  Jehovah  himself. — a.  I'he  Hebrew  word 
Ailoii  wit  h  t  be  (Iclinitc  ai1  icK'  occurs  onlyseven  times  besides 
Mai.  iii.  1  in  the  Old 'I'estament.     But  in  all  these  instances 


THE  MES8IAS  THE  ANGEL  OF  THE  TESTAMENT.   437 

it  meuns  Jehovali  himself  (cf.  Ex.  xxiii.  IT;  xxxiv.  23;  Is. 
i.  2-i;  iii.  1;  x.  IG;  x.  33;  xix.  4).  Hence  it  must  mean 
Jehovah  in  our  passage  too.  I).  The  same  conchision  fol- 
lows from  the  context;  for  the  speaker  is  "the  Lord  of 
hosts."  Now  the  speaker  is  also  he  that  will  come;  for 
"  he  shall  jirepare  the  way  befofe  vi?/  face."  Hence  the 
very  Lord  of  hosts  will  be  the  Lord  "whom  you  seek/' 
and  who  will  come.  c.  Again,  "  the  Lord  .  .  .  shall  come 
to  I/is  temple."  But  the  temple  belongs  to  Jehovah. 
Hence  the  Lord  who  shall  come  must  be  Jehovah.  The 
accuracy  of  the  rendering  "temple"  follows  from  the 
circumstance  that  the  Hebrew  word  "  hechal  "  signifies 
"temple  "  fifty-eight  times,  while  it  means  "palace  "  only 
five  times  (IIL  Kiiios  xxi.  1;  IV.  Kings  xx.  18;  Ps.  x.  (xi.) 
5;  Is.  xxxix.  7;  Dan.  i.  4;  cf.  Corhiy,  8picil.  i.  }).  52G). 
Besides,  at  the  time  of  Malachias,  tlie  royal  palace  existed 
no  longer,  so  that  "hechal"  Jiaturally  signified  "temple" 
only.  Then,  the  Lord  who  comes  shall  purify  the  temple, 
and  reform  its  ministers,  so  that  he  must  be  understood  to 
come  into  the  temple.  Finally,  Malachias  appears  to  allude 
to  the  promise  of  Aggeus  ii.  9,  where  the  future  glory  of 
the  temple  is  described  as  being  derived  from  the  presence 
of  the  Messias  in  it.  Hence,  on  this  account,  too,  "  the 
Lord  "  here  spoken  of  must  denote  Jehovah. 

3.  The  Angel  of  the  Testament  is  the  Messias.— r^  The 
difl'erence  between  "  the  Angel  of  the  Testament  "  and  "  the 
Angel  who  is  to  prepare  the  way  "  is  plain  from  the  follow- 
ing circumstances:  the  latter  prejjares  the  way,  the  former 
comes  to  his  temple;  the  Angel  of  the  Testament  is  he 
"  whom  you  desire  "  (Is.  xlii.  G;  lleb.  xii.  24;  viii.  G),  while 
the  preparatory  angel  cannot  be  identified  with  this  latter. 
b.  The  "Angel  of  the  Testament "  is  identical  with  "  the 
Lord,"  Jehovah,  as  appears  from  the  jmrallelism  of  the 
two  clauses,  c.  The  same  identity  is  strictly  maintained 
throughout  the  Old  Testament  (Ex.  xxiii.  20,  21;  Is.  Ixiii. 
9;  Jos.  V.  13-lG;  vi.  2;  Ex.  iii.  2;  iii.  4,  5;  Gen.  xxviii. 
11-22;  cf.  Os.  xii.  4;  Gen.  xxxii.  28-30;  cf.  Os.  xii.  4).     d. 


438  rilK  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

Tlie  name  "Angel  of  the  Testaineiit  "  accuridcly  expresses 
the  otVice  ut"  the  ix'oniised  Me.^sian.  For  aceordiiig  to  a 
Lapide  and  Tirinus  the  expression  sii,Miilies  the  legate 
or  the  mediator  of  the  covenant;  while  All)crtus  and 
Sanchez  consider  it  as  eqnivalent  to  the  herald  of  the 
covenant,  its  instructor  and  fnlfiller.  IS'ow  all  the  jjatri- 
archal  promises  are  to  have  their  accom])lisliment  in  the 
Messias;  in  the  Messias  the  new  covemint  j)romised  to 
the  patriarchs  is  to  be  established,  and  all  the  nations  of 
the  earth  are  to  be  blessed  through  the  Messias.  Hence 
the  Messias  and  the  Angel  of  the  Testament  are  co- 
extensive and  therefore  identical  terms  (cf.  Is.  xlii.  (J;  xlix. 
8;  Iv.  3;  liv.  10;  lix.  21;  Ixi.  8;  Jei-.  xxxi.  iH  ;  xxxii.  40; 
xxxiii.  20;  Ezech.  xvi.  GO;  xxxiv.  25;  Dan.  ix.  25;  O^.  ii. 
li-i).  This  argutnent  may  be  conlirmed  by  the  circumstance 
that  St.  Paul  (lleb.  ix,  1"))  calls  Christ  the  mediator  of 
the  New  Testament,  v.  Finally,  the  context  of  our  proj)li- 
ecy  re(piires  that  the  Angel  of  the  Testament  should  be 
identified  with  the  Messias.  The  pro])het,  it  must  be 
remembered,  consoles  the  people  disheartened  on  account 
of  the  non-fulfilment  of  the  3Iessianic  promises.  What 
better  motive  of  consolation,  then,  could  Malachias  otTer  to 
tlie  discontented  multitude  than  the  identical  promises  of 
the  future  Messias,  about  the  non-fullihuent  of  wliich  they 
were  complaining  ? 

Mal.  ti.  17-111.  6. 

'  You  have  wearied  the  Lord  with  your  words,  and  you  said  : 
Wherein  have  we  wearied  liiiii  'i    In  tliat  yon  say  :  Every  one  that 

'You  have  wearied  the  Lord.  'Y\\v  Ildirew  pro]>licts  luitl  spoken  in 
sucli  a  niiinncr  of  tlie  liberation  from  llic  Babylonian  capliviiy  tliat 
the  llcbri'ws  litlicr  iiicntilicd  llial  event  witli  the  .Messianic  time  or 
cxpeetcil  the  Messiiis  iminediulel.v  after  their  retmn  into  I'alesline. 
iSucli  is  the  description  of  the  nation's  happiness  in  E/ecliiel  (xxxvi. 
10,  15,  29,  3.")  ;  xxxvii.  14.  2J);  such  the  i>ietine  of  the  new  Jernsa- 
kni  drawn  I)}'  Isaias  (xlix.  17;  liv.  1  11'.),  .Jeremias  (xxxiii.  7  f . ;  xxxi. 
38  ;  xxxii  2(i  f.),  and  Zacharias  (ii.  2  f.).  Wlien  the  relnrning  Jews 
were  overwhclnufl  with  alliiction  ratiier  than  with  ble.ssinsr  (Esd  iii. 
12  ;  iv.  4  f.;  JSeh.  i   3  f.;  ii.  I'J;  v.  2f.;  Agg.  i.  G  ;  ii.  17),  so  tbaleveu 


THE  MESSIA8  THE  ANGEL  OF  THE  TESTAMENT   439 

doth  evil  is  good  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  and  such  please  him  ; 
oi"  else  where  is  the  God  ot  judgment  ?  Behold,  I  send  my  Angel, 
and  he  shall  prepare  the  way  before  my  face.  And  presently  the 
Lord  whom  you  seek,  and  tlie  Angel  of  the  Testament  wliom  you 
desire,  shall  come  to  his  temple.  Behold,  he  cometh,  saith  the 
Lord  of  hosts,  and  wiio"^  sliall  be  able  to  think  of  the  day  of  liis 
coming  ?  and  who  shall  stand  to  see  him  ?  for  he  is  like  a  refining 
tire  and  like  the  fuller's  herb.  And  he  shall  sit  refining  and 
cleansing  the  silver,  and  he  shall  ''purify  the  sons  of  Levi,  and 

iiflcr  the  restoration  of  city  and  sanctuary  tbey  lived  in  poverty  and 
under  a  foreign  rule  (Mai.  i.  7,  I'd),  they  had,  naturally  speaking, 
sutticient  reason  to  complain  about  the  apparent  falsehood  of  their 
j)rophctic  promises.  On  the  other  liand,  the  complaint  of  the  people 
shows  a  want  of  confidence  and  faith  iu  God's  word,  so  that  the 
Lord  rightly  expresses  his  weariness  at  the  sight  of  their  fickleness. 
The  prophet  promises  exactly  those  good  things  over  the  delay  of 
■which  his  fellow-citizens  were  so  uneasy;  hence  he  uses  the  expres- 
sions, "  The  Lord  whom  you  seelc"and  "  the  Angel  of  the  Testa- 
ment whom  you  desire." 

■-' "Who  shall  be  able.  The  prophet  here  adds  a  consideration  well 
calculated  to  sta}^  the  nuu'nuiriugs  of  the  discontented  multitude. 
The  prophetic  predictions  will  be  fulfilled  indeed,  but  the  Messias 
will  also  come  in  the  capacity  of  judge  (Is.  iv,  4  ;  Ezech.  xxxiv.  30  ; 
Zach.  xiii.  9).  Let  not  then  the  Jews'  confidence  be  placed  in  the 
iMessias'  help,  unless  they  are  really  and  internally  prepared  for  his 
coming.  It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  prophets  do  not  alwa3's  de- 
scribe the  Messias  according  to  all  his  attributes;  the  circmnstance 
that  be  is  described  as  a  severe  judge  in  this  passage  does  not  con- 
tradict the  predictions  in  which  he  is  exbiljited  as  the  Good  Shep- 
herd and  as  the  Great  Consoler. 

•^He  shall  purify  the  sons  of  Levi.  The  ^Messianic  judgment  will 
begin  in  the  temple,  and  afi;ect  all  those  details  wiiich  appertain  to 
the  divine  service.  For  the  temple  is  God's  own  bouse,  and  the 
priests  are  his  special  ministers  Any  blemish  of  the  temple,  and 
any  blame  attaching  to  the  priesthood,  must  therefore  be  especially 
detestable  in  the  sight  of  God.  In  the  words  of  the  fourth  verse, 
we  have  a  confirmation  of  the  argument  for  the  perpetual  sacrifice 
()(■  ilie  New  Law,  based  on  Mai.  i.  11.  But  though  the  Mes.sias  will 
begin  his  judgment  with  the  priesthood  and  the  temple,  he  will  not 
conliue  himself  to  them.  "And  I  will  come  to  you  in  judgment," 
he  addresses  the  common  people,  "and  will  be  speed}^  witness 
against  sorcerers,  and  adulterers,  and  false  swearers,  and  them  that 
oppress  the  hireling  in  his  wages,  the  widows  and  the  fatherless." 
Ilere  the  prophet  enumerates  those  criminal  practices  tiiat  are 
especially  hateful  to  God,  and  for  which  lie  will  visit  the  guilty  in  a 
most  severe  manner.  Finally,  the  prophet  ends  with  a  new  argu- 
ment for  the  certainty  of  the  Messianic  promises,  whether  consoling 
or  terrifying,  apjtealing  to  the  inunutal)ilily  of  God,  by  reason  of 
wJiich  his  word  cannot  be  changed  by  any  power. 


440  THE  MKSSIANIC  NAMES. 

shall  refine  them  as  gold,  and  as  silver,  and  they  shall  offer 
sacrifices  to  the  Lord  in  justice.  And  the  sacrifice  of  Juda  and  of 
Jerusalem  shall  please  the  Lord,  as  in  the  davs  of  old,  and  in  the 
ancient  years.  And  I  will  come  to  you  in  judgment,  and  will  be 
a  speedy  witness  against  sorcerere,  and  adulterers  and  false 
swearers,  and  them  that  oppress  the  hireling  in  his  wages,  the 
widows  and  the  fatherless,  and  oppress  the  stranger  and  have 
not  feared  me,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts.  For  1  am  the  Lord,  and  I 
change  not,  and  you  the  sous  of  Jacob  are  not  consumed. 


Corollaries. 

1.  From  this  prophecy  it  follows  that  the  Messias  will  be 
identical  with  Jehovah,  since  the  Angel  of  the  Testament 
is  identical  with  the  Lord.  The  Messias'  divinity  had  been 
predicted  in  other  prophecies  :  Ps.  ii.;  Is.  ix.  G;  Ps.  xliv. 
7;  Ps.  cix.  1,  3;  Zach.  xii.  10.  But  Malachias  speaks  so 
clearly  that  all  doubt  must  vanish. 

2.  The  predictions  of  this  prophecy  must  be  understood 
])artly  literally,  i.e.,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  proi)hotic 
words,  })artly  metaphorically.  The  Messias  will  literally 
come  to  the  temjile,  but  he  will  purify  the  sons  of  Levi  in 
a  metaphorical  sense,  instituting  a  new  priesthood,  which  is 
typically  represented  by  the  Levites  of  the  Old  Testament. 
See,  however,  Jo.  iv.  13  f. 

3.  The  prophecy  nuiy  be  use(l  as  an  argument  against 
the  Jews,  because  several  of  tluii'  own  commentators  have 
admitted  its  Messianic  character  (Abarl)anel,  Kimchi,  Saa- 
dias,  Abcn-Ezra).  Unt  at  the  same  time  they  must  admit 
that  the  temple  has  long  ceased  to  exist.  Hence  the  Mes- 
sias must  hav(>  come. 

4.  We  need  not  ineiition  flio  fact  thai  the  argument  for 
the  Kucliaristic  sacrilice  may  l)e  coiilirnu'd  by  what  is  said 
concerning  the  sacrifices  instituted  by  the  Messias. 

f),  Corliiv  and  I'nsey  are  of  opiniftn  lliat  I  lie  pi'ophet  has 
lilcndcd  ill  this  prediction  I  lie  (irst  and  I  he  s(>c(>nd  advent 
of  the  Messias.     Tlie  lirst  coming  a])pears  in  the  liglit  of 


TEE  MESSIAS  THE  ANGEL  OF  THE  TESTAMENT.   441 

pure  mercy  rather  tlian  of  jiisti'ce  and  judgment.  Tliis  is 
confirmed  by  tlie  words  of  Christ  himself  (Jo.  iii.  17),  who 
did  not  come  to  judge  tlie  world,  but  to  save  it.  Hence 
the  threats  of  Malachias'  prophecy  seem  to  belong  to 
Christ's  second  advent. 


442  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 


CHAPTER  V. 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SERVANT  OF  THE  LORD.    Is.  xux.-l. 


Introduction. 

1.  Identity  of  Jehovah's  Serva^^t.— 1.  In  Deut.  x.  12 
it  is  said:  "And  now,  Jsruel,  wlmt  dotli  tlie  Lord  tliy 
God  require  of  tliee,  but  that  thou  fear  the  Lord  tliy 
God,  and  walk  in  liis  ways,  and  love  him,  and  serve  the 
Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul?" 
And  in  verse  20  of  the  same  chapter  the  law-giver  again 
insists  on  the  same  obligation:  ''  Thou  shalt  fear  the  Ijord 
thy  God,  a)ul  serve  him  only;  to  him  thou  shalt  adhere, 
and  shalt  swear  by  his  name."  We  cannot  then  be  aston- 
ished if  the  Lord  says,  Lev.  xxv.  55:  "unto  me  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  are  servants"  (of.  Ps.  cv.  6,  etc.).  But  single 
persons  too  are  honored  with  the  title  "servant  of  the 
Lord  "  in  the  earlier  books  of  the  Old  Testament:  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  in  Deut.  ix.  27,  etc. ;  Moses  in  Jos.  i.  1,  and 
frequently  throughout  the  course  of  the  book;  David  in 
IV.  Kings  viii.  (JO,  etc.  It  is,  however,  noticea])le  that  the 
name  throughout  is  a  name  of  honor  and  respect  rather 
than  of  subjection  and  servitude. 

2.  C'oming  now  to  the  writings  of  Isaias  xli.-liii.,  the  tith^ 
"servant  of  tlu-  Lord  "  occurs  ninetecMi  times:  In  xli.  S,  !>; 
xliv.  1,  2,  21  (Itis);  xlv.  4  and  xlviii.  20  it  api)ears  to  apply 
to  either  .lacub  or  Israel;  in  xlii.  H)  (iiis);  xliii.  10;  xliv. 
2fi  the  applieaiion  of  tlu^  title  is  doubtful;  in  xlii.  1  ;  \li\. 
3,  5,  G;  1.    10;  lii.   i:'.;  liii.    II    liie  term  denotes  a  jK-rson 


THE  ME88IA8  IS  THE  SERVANT  OF  THE  LOUD.   443 

who  re2)resents  Israel,  and  who  is  at  the  same  time  distinct 
from  Israel  (cf.  Kay,  Is.  p.  233). 

3.  The  mission  of  Jehovah's  servant  is  represented  as  two- 
fold: a.  He  must  teach  the  world  the  true  religion;  b.  he 
is  to  he  Israel's  mediator,  and  to  hring  about  the  nation's 
restoration.  Since  he  completes  these  two  offices  in  c.  liii.  11, 
"  by  his  knowledge  shall  this  my  just  servant  justify  many, 
and  he  shall  bear  their  iniquities,"  he  is  no  longer  spoken 
of  after  c.  liii. ;  but  instead  of  him  we  find  "servants  of  the 
Lord  "  in  chapters  liv.-lxvi.,  an  expression  which  does  not 
occur  in  the  earlier  parts  of  the  prophecies.  Isaias  intro- 
duces these  "  servants  of  the  Lord  "  as  often  as  ten  times: 
liv.  1?;  Ivi.  G;  Ixiii.  17;  Ixv.  9;  Ixv.  13  (bis);  Ixv.  14  (bis); 
Ixv.  15;  Ixvi.  14.  These  servants  appear  to  be  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  promise  in  liii.  10:  "If  he  shall  lay  down  his 
life  for  sin,  he  shall  see  a  long-lived  seed,  and  the  will  of 
the  Lord  shall  be  prosperous  in  his  hand."  The  apostle 
(Rom.  v.  15-19)  seems  to  have  alluded  to  this  prophetic 
passage,  where  he  tells  us  that  many  have  been  justified 
through  the  obedience  of  one. 

4.  Returning  now  to  the  passage  in  which  we  maintain 
that  the  Messias  is  identified  with  the  "servant  of  the 
Lord,''  we  find  that  Is.  xlix.  1-13  describes  the  person  and 
the  experiences  of  the  servant,  and  also  his  double  mission; 
vv.  14-2G  contain  an  answer  to  the  difficulties  against  the 
prophet's  position  — difficulties  which  arise  out  of  the  unbe- 
lief of  Israel;  1.  1-3  states  Israel's  rejection  on  account  of 
its  sins;  1.  4-9  treats  of  the  manner  in  which  the  servant 
will  fulfil  his  mission,  and  speaks  even  of  his  passion;  1.  10 
f.  exhorts  tl^e  Jews  to  place  their  confidence  in  the  servant; 
those  who  will  not  believe  in  him  Avill  surely  perish. 

2.  Messianic  Charactee  of  the  Servant  of  the  Lord. 
— a.  That  the  servant  of  the  Lord  is  the  Messias  follows  in 
the  first  place  from  his  having  the  work  of  the  Messias  to 
do.  For  the  Messianic  predictions  generally  assign  the 
twofold  mission  which  Isaias  imposes  on  the  Lord's  ser- 
vant to  the  Messias  himself.      /;.  The  identity  of  the  Mes- 


444  rilK  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

sias  with  tlie  "servant  of  the  Lord"  appears  also  from 
several  i)assages  of  the  New  Testament.  Matt.  i.  21  and 
Luke  i.  31,  e.g.,  describe  the  child  which  is  about  to  be 
born  as  having  the  offices  which  are  attributed  to  the  Lord's 
servant  in  the  chapters  of  the  prophet  Isaias.  c.  'i'he 
patristic  testimonies  in  favor  of  the  servant's  identity  with 
the  ^lessias  may  be  seen  in  Kilber's  Analysis  Biblica,  ed. 
Tail  ban,  i.  p.  380.  d.  Finally,  we  have  the  Rabbinic  tra- 
dition for  the  servant's  identity  with  the  Messias.  The 
Targum  on  xlii.  1  reads:  "Behold  my  servant,  the  Messias, 
I  will  bring  him  near."  The  same  authority  renders  Is. 
xliii.  10:  "And  my  servant,  the  Messias,  in  whom  I  am 
well  pleased."  The  same  testimony  favors  the  Messianic 
bearing  of  Is.  lii.  13:  "Behold,  my  servant,  the  Messias, 
shall  prosper;  he  shall  be  exalted."  And  concerning  the 
words  "my  servant  shall  deal  prudently,"  the  same  Targum 
adds:  "This  is  the  king  IMessias."  Besides  these  passages, 
we  may  refer  to  the  Midrash  on  Ps.  ii.;  Yalkut  ii.,  p.  104  (L; 
p.  52  b.;  Midrash  on  Prov.  xix.  21;  and  in  general  to  all 
those  testimonies  in  which  the  context  of  passages  that 
refer  to  the  servant  is  interpreted  Messianically  (cf.  Cor- 
Iny,  Spicil.  ii.  Hi')). 

3.  Anti-Christian  Explanations.— cr.  The  servant  is 
Moses,  or  Ezechias,  or  David,  or  Ozias,  or  Jcremias,  or 
Isaias,  or  Josias.  But  none  of  these  persons  satisfies  all 
the  conditions  that  are  required  by  the  words  of  the 
prophecy.  They  suffered  for  their  own  sins  (David,  Ozias), 
or  they  were  not  of  humble  birth  (Ezechias,  Josias,  Isaias), 
or  they  did  not  clTer  their  sufferings  for  the  good  of  the 
])0()i)le  (Jcremias,  Isaias,  David,  Ezechias),  or  they  had  not 
long-lived  seed  (Closes),  or  they  were  not  condemned  to  an 
unjust  death  (Moses,  David,  etc.). 

/>.  The  servant  is  the  entire  people  of  Israel,  or  its  better 
])ail,  or  the  series  of  the  prophets,  or  the  iiriestly  order. 
n.  ]*)ut  it  is  false  that  the  whole  nation  s"iTercd  unjustly, 
and  that  the  just  ones  of  the  nation  sulTered  for  tbe  un- 
godly, siiu'e  during  the  Captivity  many  of  the  holy  men 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SER  VANT  OF  THE  LORD.   445 

were  treated  better  than  their  fellow-citizens,  ft.  Sacred 
Scripture  contains  no  vestige  of  any  vicarious  suffering  on 
the  part  of  the  people,  or  of  its  better  part,  or  of  any  special 
class  of  the  nation,  y.  The  whole  context  shows  that  the 
prophet's  words  must  be  understood  of  an  individual  ser- 
vant, so  that  no  moral  person  can  be  thought  of.  d.  It  is 
false  that  the  servant  always  signifies  the  same  person,  or 
collection  of  persons,  wherever  the  expression  occurs. 
Hence  the  very  foundation  of  the  opponents'  theory  is  not 
solid. 

Is.  XLIX.-L. 

'  Give  car,  ye  islands,  and  hearken,  ye  peoples  from  afar.  The 
Lord  liatli  called  mo  from  the  woiiil),  from  the  bowels  of  my  mother 
he  liatli  been  mindful  of  my  name.  And  he  hatli  made  my  moutli 
like  a  sharp  sword;  in  the  shadow  of  his  hand  he  hath  protected 
me,  and  hath  made  me  as  a  chosen  arrow;  in  liis  quiver  he  hath 
hidden  me.  And  lie  said  to  me:  Thou  art  my  servant,  Israel,  for 
in  thee  will  I  glory.  And  I  said:  I  liave  labored  in  vain;  therefore 
my  judgment  is  with  the  Lord,  and  my  work  with  my  God.  And 
now,  saith  tlie  Lord  that  formed  me  from  the  womb  to  be  his  ser- 
vant, tliat  I  may  bring  back  Jacob  unto  him,  and  Israel  will  not 
be  gathered  together;  and  I  am  glorified  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord, 
and  my  God  is  my  strength.  And  lie  said:  Is  it  a  small  thing  that 
thou  shouldst  be  my  servant  to  raise  up  the  tribes  of  Jacob,  and 
to  convert  the  dregs  of  Israel  ?  Behold,  I  have  given  thee  to  be 
the  light  of  the  Gentiles,  that  thou  mayest  be  my  salvation  even 
to  the  farthest  part  of  the  earth.  Thus  saith  the  Lord  the  Re- 
deemer of  Israel,  his  Holy  One,  to  the  soul  that  is  despised,  to  the 
nation  that  is  abhorred,  to  the  servant  of  rulers  :  Kings  sliall  see 

'  Give  ear,  ye  islands.  Tiie  servant  of  llie  Lord  lolls  the  assembled 
nations  how  he  has  been  chosen  and  instructed  by  God  lo  fulfil  his 
work,  but  he  coai|)lains  at  llies  inie  time  that  he  has  lalxired  in  vain  ; 
therefore  he  intru.sts  his  cause  entirely  to  God's  judgment.  God 
consoles  his  servant  by  showing  him  the  fruit  of  liis  labor,  by  means 
of  wliicli  salvation  will  come  to  the  world,  but  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  servant  him.self  will  be  gloritied  through  his  great  luimiliations. 
At  the  time  of  his  sorest  need  the  Lord  will  assist  him  in  his  inii,dil. 
will  restiue  his  scattered  inheritance,  bring  back  the  people  of 
Israel  out  of  captivit}^  and  from  all  parts  of  the  earth  will  those 
come  together  who  will  extol  the  servant's  praises. 


446  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

aiul  prineos  sliall  rise  up,  and  adore  for  the  Lord's  sake,  iK-causo 
he  is  faitlifiil,  and  for  tiie  Holy  One  of  Israel  who  hath  chosen 
thee.  Thus  saith  the  Lord  :  In  an  acceptable  time  I  have  heard 
thee,  and  in  the  day  of  salvation  I  have  helped  thee  ;  and  I  have 
preserved  thee,  and  given  thee  to  be  a  covenant  of  the  people, 
tiiat  thou  mightest  raise  up  the  earth,  and  possess  the  inherit- 
ances that  were  destroyed  ;  that  thou  mightest  say  to  them  that 
are  bound.  Come  forth,  and  to  them  that  are  in  darkness,  Siiow 
yourselves.  Tliey  shall  feed  in  the  ways,  and  their  jjastures  shall 
be  in  every  plain.  They  shall  not  hunger,  nor  thirst,  neither  shall 
the  heat  nor  the  sun  strike  them;  for  he  that  is  merciful  to  them 
shall  be  their  shepherd,  and  at  the  fountains  of  waters  he  shall 
give  them  drink.  And  1  will  make  all  my  mountains  a  way,  and 
my  paths  shall  be  exalted.  Behold  these  shall  come  from  afar, 
and  behold  these  from  the  north  and  from  the  sea,  and  these  from 
the  south  country,  (iivc  praise,  O  ye  heavens,  and  rejoice  O 
earth,  yc  mountains  give  jjraise  witli  jul)ilation  ;  because  the  Lord 
hath  comforted  his  i)eoi)le,  and  will  have  mercy  on  his  poor  ones. 
An(P  Sion  said:  The  Lord  hath  fonsaken  me,  and  the  Lord  hath 
forgotten  me.  Can  a  woman  forget  her  infant,  so  as  not  to  have 
pity  on  the  son  of  her  womb?  and  if  she  should  forget,  yet  will  I 
not  forget  thee.  Behold,  I  have  graven  thee  in  my  hands  ;  thy 
walls  are  always  before  my  eyes.  Thy  builders  are  come;  they 
that  destroy  thee  and  make  thee  waste  shall  go  out  of  thee.  Lift 
up  thy  eyes  round  about,  and  see,  all  these  are  gathered  together, 
they  are  come  to  thee  :  as  I  live,  saith  the  Lord,  thou  shalt  be 
clothed  with  all  these  as  with  an  ornament,  and  as  a  bride  thou 
shalt  i)ut  them  about  thee.  For  thy  deserts  and  thy  desolate 
places  and  the  land  of  thy  destruction  shall  now  be  too  narrow 
by  reason  of  the  inliabitants,  and  they  that  swallowed  thee  up 
shall  be  chased  far  away.  The  childi'en  of  tliy  barrenness  shall 
still  say  in  thy  ears  :  The  place  is  too  strait  for  me.  make  me  room 
to  dwell  in.  And  thou  shalt  say  in  thy  heart :  "Who  hatii  begotten 
these?  I  was  barren,  and  brought  not  forth,  led  away  and  caj)- 
tive  ;  and  who  hath  brought  upthe.se?    I  was  destitute  and  alone, 

''  And  Sion  said  (Jod  coiisoli's  Sion,  Avlio  complains  of  lit  r  dcsola- 
lioii,  niid  lie  predicts  that  slic  will  beconic  Ilir  motliir  of  an  iiiiiu- 
nuTjihlc  ()lls|iriiig,  lo  licr  own  great  surprise  and  (•(insolation.  For 
(\u{\  will  conunaMd  the  (untiles  to  revere  iSioii  ^^ilil  llic  gnalesi 
liossihlc  respcci ,  and  lo  bring  .sons  lo  lier  ;  as  a  uiiglity  hero  lie  will 
laUc  llic  liooly  from  her  encinies,  cliaslising  Ihcni  with  the  severest 
jiunislimcnts,  and  iiroving  liiiusi-lf  to  be  the  KedccnK-r  of  his  own. 


THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  SERVANT  OF  THE  LORD.   447 

and  these,  where  were  they  ?  Thus  saith  the  Lord  God  :  Behold, 
I  will  lift  up  my  hand  to  the  Gentiles,  and  will  set  ujo  my  standard 
to  the  peoples.  And  they  shall  bring  thy  sons  in  their  arms,  and 
carry  thy  daughters  upon  their  shoulders.  And  kings  shall  be 
thy  nursing  fathers,  and  queens  thy  nurses  ;  they  shall  worship 
thee  with  their  face  toward  the  earth,  and  they  shall  lick  up  the 
du.st  ot  thy  feet.  And  thou  shalt  know  that  I  am  the  Lord,  for 
they  shall  not  be  confounded  that  wait  for  him.  Shall  the  prey 
be  taken  from  the  strong?  or  can  that  which  was  taken  by  the 
mighty  be  delivered?  For  thus  saith  the  Lord  :  Yea  verily,  even 
the  captivity  shall  be  taken  away  from  the  strong  ;  and  that  which 
was  taken  by  the  mighty  shall  be  delivered.  But  I  will  Judge 
those  that  have  judged  thee,  and  thy  children  I  will  save.  And  I 
will  feed  thy  own  enemies  with  their  own  flesh  ;  and  they  shall  be 
made  drunk  with  their  own  blood,  as  with  new  wine,  and  all  flesh 
shall  know  that  I  am  the  Lord  that  save  thee,  and  thy  redeemer, 
the  mighty  one  of  Jacob. 

Thus^  saith  the  Lord:  What  is  this  bill  of  the  divorce  of  your 
mother,  with  which  I  have  put  her  away  ?  or  who  is  my  creditor 
to  whom  I  sold  you  ?  Behold,  you  are  sold  for  your  iniquities,  and 
for  your  wicked  deeds  have  I  put  your  mother  away.  Because  I 
came,  and  there  was  not  a  man  ;  I  called,  and  there  was  none  that 
would  hear;  is  my  hand  shortened  and  become  little  tliat  I  can- 
not redeem  ?  or  is  tliere  no  strength  in  me  to  deliver  ?  Behold  at 
my  rebuke  I  will  make  the  sea  a  desert,  I  will  turn  the  rivers  into 
dry  land  ;  the  fishes  shall  rot  for  want  of  water,  and  shall  die  for 
thirst.  I  will  clothe  the  heavens  with  darkness,  and  will  make 
sackcloth  their  covering. 

The  *  Lord  hath  given  me  a  learned  tongue,  that  I  should  know 
how  to  uphold  by  word  him  that  is  weai*y ;  he  wakeneth  in  the 
morning,  in  the  morning  he  wakeneth  my  ear,  that  I  may  hear 
him  as  a  master.  The  Lord  God  hath  opened  my  ear,  and  I  do 
not  resist ;  I  have  not  gone  back.     I  have  given  my  body  to  the 

^  Thus  saith  the  Lord.  The  people  have  been  .sold  into  bondage, 
not  owing-  to  God's  injustice  or  weakness,  but  by  reason  of  their  own 
iniquily  ;  for  tliey  have  disobeyed  the  Lord,  who  aloue  has  tlie  power 
to  save. 

^  The  Lord  hath  given  me  a  learned  tongue.  The  Lord's  .servant 
loudly  piofesses  his  obedience  and  sul)mission  ;  lie  calls  atteiilion  to 
iiis  pallence  in  the  gieulest  trials,  in  the  midst  of  wliich  he  remains 
sure  of  the  divine  help,  and  he  contrasts  all  this  with  the  behavior 
of  the  people. 


448  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

strikers  and  my  cheeks  to  them  that  phicked  tlicm  ;  I  have  not 
turned  away  my  face  from  tliem  that  rebuked  me,  and  spit  upon 
me.  The  Lord  God  is  my  helper,  therefore  am  I  not  confounded  ; 
tlierefore  liave  I  set  my  face  as  a  most  hard  rock,  and  1  know  tliat 
1  shall  not  be  confounded.  He  is  near  that  justilieth  me,  who  will 
contend  with  me?  let  us  stand  together,  who  is  my  adversary?  let 
him  come  near  to  me.  Behold,  the  Lord  is  my  helper  ;  who  is  he 
that  shall  condemn  me  ?  Lo  they  shall  all  be  destroyed  as  a  gar- 
ment, the  moth  shall  eat  them  up. 

Who '  is  there  among  you  that  feareth  the  Lord,  that  heareth 
the  voice  of  his  servant  ?  let  him  that  hath  walked  in  darkness, 
and  hath  no  light,  hope  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  and  lean  upon 
liis  (iod.  Bcliold  all  you  that  kindle  a  tire,  that  are  encompassed 
with  liames,  walk  in  the  liglit  of  your  tire,  and  in  the  flames  which 
you  have  kindled  ;  this  is  done  to  you  by  my  hand,  you  shall  sleep 
in  sorrows. 

Corollary. 

It  appears  from  all  this  that  the  Jews  knew  and  recog- 
nized a  sutfcring  Messias.  And  since  the  latter  attained 
to  the  greatest  glory  by  means  of  his  sufferings,  his  identity 
with  the  glorious  Messias  was  obvious. 

^  Who  is  there  among  you  that  feareth  the  Lord  1  Sure  of  liis  final 
viclory  and  of  CJod's  nssislaiict',  iIil'  servant  eliiilleugcs  his  cucniies 
lo  a  contest.  All  tliosc  wiio  obey  liis  coniinands  sliali  obtain  great 
success,  while  all  those  wlio  are  refractory  and  disobedient  will  be 
given  over  to  ruin  and  destruction  in  the  tlanies. 


THE  MESSIAS   WILL  BE  THE  EMMANUEL.      449 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  MESSIAS  WILL  BE  THE  EMMANUEL.     Is.  viii.  1-10. 

Introduction. 

1.  Connection  of  the  Prophecy  with  its  Context. 

— In  the  eighth  chapter  Isaias  repeats  the  threats  and 
promises  of  the  seventh.  Instead  of  giving  a  far-off  super- 
natural sign  in  confirmation  of  liis  predictions  regarding 
Samaria  and  Syria,  he  appeals  to  a  present  proof  for  his 
words.  Juda's  destruction  too  is  foretold  for  the  second 
time,  but  hope  is  held  out  through  the  influence  of  the 
Messias,  or  the  Emmanuel. 

2.  Erroneous  Explanations.— We  need  not  here  repeat 
the  opinion  of  those  authors  who  identify  the  Emmanuel 
of  Is.  vii.  14  with  Maher-Shalal,  of  whom  the  pi'ophet  speaks 
in  the  present  passage.  This  view  has  been  fully  refuted 
in  the  chapter  on  Is.  vii.  1-17.  But  we  must  mention  a 
few  of  the  various  asj^ects  under  which  the  theory  has  been 
proposed :  a.  The  Holy  Ghost  is  the  prophetess  (cf.  Jerome, 
Haimo);  h.  the  virgin-mother  is  called  the  prophetess, 
and  Isaias  merely  witnesses  the  conception  and  the  birth 
of  Emmanuel  (Sasbout,  Pinto) ;  c.  God  himself  speaks  in 
the  person  of  the  prophet  and  foretells  the  mystery  of  the 
incarnation  through  the  special  intervention  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  (Eusebius,  Cyril) ;  d.  Emmanuel  is  called  Maher- 
Shalal,  because  he  will  despoil  the  devil  of  his  booty,  and 
the  king  of  Damascus  shall  be  vanquished  not  only  before 
Maher-Shalal  will  be  able  to  speak,  but  also  through  the 
power  of  the  child  (Theod.,  Basil,  Procopius,  Osorio, 
Menochius,  Gordon,  Barheb.}.     But  on  the  other  hand,  a 


450  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

grciit  number  of  comniontators  distinguisli  between  Malier- 
Shaliil  and  Ennnanucl  (Thonnis,  Kichard  Vict.,  Sixtus  Se- 
nensis,  Arias,  Yatable,  Clarius,  Maldonatus,  Malvenda, 
Pagninus,  Foreiro,  Sa,  Estiiis,  Mariana,  Tirinus,  Sanchez, 
etc^. 

3.  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecy.— The  Mes- 
sianic nature  of  the  Emmanuel  mentioned  in  the  eijrhth 
chapter  ap])ears:  ((.  From  the  i)arallelism  l)etween  liim  and 
the  P^mnumuel  of  chapters  vii.,  ix.,  xi.,  and  Mich.  v.  2  f.  b. 
Jewish  tradition  too  Inis  interpreted  the  passage  in  a  Mes- 
sianic sense:  The  'J'almud  (Sanhedrin,  foh  38,  col.  1)  lias 
the  following  on  viii.  14:  "Jehudah  and  Ilezekiah,  the 
sons  of  liahbi  lliyah,  were  sitting  at  a  meal,  in  the  presence 
of  Kabbi,  without  uttering  a  word.  Give  some  wine  to  tlie 
boys,  exclaimed  Kabbi,  that  they  may  feel  encouraged  to 
say  something.  When  they  had  drunk  the  wine,  they 
opened  their  mouths  and  said:  The  son  of  David  will  not 
come  until  the  two  patriarchal  houses  of  Israel  shall  cease — 
that  is,  the  Head  of  the  captivity  in  Babylon,  and  the  Prince 
in  the  land  of  Israel;  for  it  is  said  :  '  And  he  shall  be  for  a 
sanctuary.'  My  children,  exclaimed  the  Kabbi,  you  are 
thrusting  thorns  into  my  eyes.  Said  Kabbi  Iliyah:  Kabbi, 
take  it  not  ill  of  them;  wine  is  given  with  seventy,  and  so 
is  a  secret;  when  the  wine  comes  in,  the  secret  goes  out." 
(Hoth  the  word  "wine,"  yayin,  and  the  word  "sod,"  secret, 
have  in  Hebrew  the  numerical  value  of  seventy). 

Is.  VIII.  1-10. 

'And  the  bonl  said  to  me:  Take  tliec  a  jxroat  book,  and  write 
in  it  wilii  a  man's  \w\\  :  Take  away  the  si)()ils  with  speed,  quickly 

'  And  the  Lord  said  to  me.  Tlii'  pioplict  (iocs  not  tell  us  at  w  liat  \nv- 
else  tiiiK-  lliis  (liviiu-  coiiiiikuk!  rciiclicd  liiiii.  Hut  jiidiiinir  from  llic 
roiitrxt,  il  (•■•inuot  liavi' been  lonir  at'liT  llicsiiiii  of  llic  scvciilli  chapter 
was  ;^ivt'M  to  Acliaz.  Tht'  "man's  pen"  sigiiitics  lliat  cvciy  one 
must  l)c  able  to  n-ail  tlic  wiilin;;:  (Malilon.),  or  tlial  llic  slylt' of  tlic 
wriliiiji  must  lie  clear  (Mariana,  Thomas,  I'into,  Foreiro,  Malvenda. 
iMenochius.  Tirinus,  ("lialdee  version),  or  that  the  letters  are  to  be 
cxtruordiiiarily  iarye  (Ciilmet),  or  that  the  prophet  is  to  write  iu  the 


THE  MESS f AS   WILL  BE  THE  EMMANUEL.       451 

take  the  prey.  And  I  took  unto  me  faithful  witnesses,  Urias  the 
priest,  and  Zacharias  the  son  of  Barachias:  and  I  went  to  the 
prophetess,  and  she  conceived  and  bore  a  son.  And  the  Lord  said 
to  me:  Call  his  name,  Hasten  to  take  away  the  spoils,  make  haste 
to  take  the  prey.  For  before  the  child  know  to  call  his  father 
and  his  mother,  the  strength  of  Damascus  and  the  spoils  of 
Samaria  shall  be  taken  away  before  the  king  of  the  Assyrians. 

And  the  '  Lord  spoke  to  me  again,  saying  :  Forasmuch  as  this 
l)eople  hath  cast  away  the  waters  of  Siloe,  that  go  with  silence, 
and  hath  rather  taken  Rasin,  and  the  son  of  Romelia,  therefore 
behold,  the  Lord  will  bring  upon  them  the  waters  of  the  river 
strong  and  many,  the  king  of  the  A.ssyrians  and  all  his  glory;  and 
he  shall  come  up  over  all  liis  ciiannels,  and  shall  overflow  all  his 
banks,  and  shall  pass  through  Juda,  overflowing,  and  going  over 
shall  reach  even  to  the  neck.  And  the  stretching  out  of  his  wings 
shall  fill  tlie  breadth  of  thy  land,  O  Emmanuel.  Gather  your- 
selves together,  O  ye  people,  and  l)e  overcome,  and  give  ear,  all  ye 

C()mn\ou  demotic,  not  iu  llie  iiienitic  characters  (Roliling,  Trochon). 
Wc  cauuot  here  e.xamiue  all  llic  reasons  advanced  forand  against 
these  sevorul  e.\i)laiiations.  The  words  of  the  following  verse,  "aud 
1  took  unto  niu  .  .  .,"  must  be  understood  as  a  continuation  of  God's 
own  address  to  the  prophet  For  though  the  latter  does  not  express 
ly  state  that  he  complied  with  the  divine  command,  tliis  obedience 
is  understood  As  to  the  prophetess,  she  is  called  by  this  name  ac- 
cording to  some  because  she  was  the  propiiet's  wife.  But  it  appears 
probable  that  she  herself  was  endowed  with  the  prophetic  gift. 
Fatlier,  mother,  and  child  are  here  entirely  different  from  the  father, 
mother,  and  child  who  are  supposed  to  constitute  the  sign  iu  the 
preceding  chapter. 

'And  the  Lord  spoke  to  me  again.  But  while  the  prophet  conlirms 
by  this  new  sign  his  predictions  concerning  tiie  destruction  of  Sama- 
ria and  Syria,  he  also  inculcates  anew  the  projihecy  concerning  the 
future  chastisement  of  Juda,  tempering  Ins  prediction,  however,  with 
the  consoling  assurance  of  final  lil)eration,  which  is  to  come  to  Juda 
on  account  of  Emmanuel.  First  the  propliet  describes  the  cause  of 
the  chastisement:  Israel  has  despised  the  waters  of  Siloe  Avluch  flow 
.softly,  ie.,  has  thrown  off  the  yoke  of  tlie  royal  house  of  David, 
and  has  pieferred  tlie  kings  of  Syria  and  Sanuuia  instead,  even  as 
the  king  Achaz  preferred  the  As.syrian  alliance  to  the  help  of 
Jeliovah.  Hence  tiie  Lord  will  bring  on  them  waters  which  do  not 
go  witli  silence,  and  which  shall  inundate  all  tlie  country  even  to  the 
neck,  i.e.,  even  to  the  royal  city  of  Jeru.salem.  Still,  all  human 
power  and  all  human  strength  shall  not  be  able  to  prevail  against 
the  divine  power  of  the  Emmanuel  (God  with  us).  Heiic-e  the 
prophet  insists  so  emphatically  on  the  fact  that  all  the  enemies' 
devices  shall  be  vain,  us  they  are  directed  against  the  economy  of  the 
Emmanuel. 


452  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

lands  afar  off  ;  strcngtlion  yourselves  and  be  overcome,  gird  your- 
selves and  be  overcome.  Take  counsel  together,  and  it  shall  be 
defeated  ;  speak  a  word,  and  it  shall  not  be  done,  because  God  is 
with  us. 

Corollaries. 

1.  The  land  of  Emmanuel  is  identified  witli  the  land  of 
Juda,  i.e.,  with  the  Lord's  own  land.  Hence  Emmanuel 
must  be  a  specially  a])])ointed  divine  king. 

2.  The  land  of  Juda  shall  be  saved  through,  or  on  ac- 
count of,  Emmanuel,  so  that  Emmanuel  himself  is  repre- 
sented as  the  Redeemer  of  his  native  land.  These  charac- 
teristics of  Lord  and  Kedeemer  are,  however,  more  clearly 
indicated  in  other  prophecies  as  belonging  peculiarly  to  the 
Mcssias. 


THE  MESSIAS  18  THE  PRINCE  OF  PEACE.       453 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  MESSIAS  IS  THE  PRINCE  OF  PEACE.    Is.  ix.  1-7. 

iNTRODUCTIOlSr. 

1.  Connection  of  the  Prophecy  with  its  Context.— 

In  the  seventh  cha2:)ter  the  prophet  Isaiiis  had  predicted 
the  fate  of  Syria,  of  Samaria,  and  of  Jnda,  confirming  his 
prophecy  by  the  celebrated  sign  of  the  virgin-mother.  In 
the  eighth  chapter  the  prophet  first  again  confirms  his 
prediction  by  a  more  immediate  sign,  and  annonnces  salva- 
tion as  coming  through  the  Emmanuel  alone  (viii.  1-10). 
In  the  second  part  of  the  same  chapter  Isaias  shows  the 
practical  lessons  to  be  learned  from  his  proj^hecies  for  the 
immediate  future:  the  God-fearing  must  place  all  their 
confidence  and  hope  in  God's  special  protection  and  help; 
the  wicked  will  meet  with  instant  ruin  and  destruction 
(viii.  11-22).  But  after  these  dark  times  of  punishment 
and  affliction,  there  will  come  days  of  boundless  joy  and 
gladness;  for  Emmanuel,  the  Messianic  king  and  ruler,  will 
be  born,  and  bring  universal  peace  and  happiness  (ix.  1-7). 

2.  Unchristian  Explanation  of  the  Prophecy.— The 
child  of  whom  the  prophet  speaks  is  Ezechias.  Though 
the  Jewish  writers  who  lived  after  the  time  of  Christ  and 
several  modern  Rationalists  give  this  explanation  (Gesenius, 
Hendewerk,  Aben-Ezra,  Sanhedrin,  etc.),  the  reasons  of  the 
former  are  different  from  those  of  the  latter:  a.  The  former 
writers  base  their  position  on  the  peculiar  rendering  of  Is. 
ix.  6;  instead  of  translating  "his  name  shall  be  called 
Wonderful,  Counsellor,  God,  the  Mighty,  the  Father  of  the 


454  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

world  to  come,  tlie  Prince  of  peace,"  they  render,  "and  the 
AVonderful,  the  Counsellor,  God,  the  Mighty,  the  Father  of 
the  world  to  come  shall  call  his  name  Prince  of  peace." 
b.  The  Rationalists  assign  the  following  reasons  for  their 
opinion:  1.  The  child  is  represented  by  the  pro])het  as 
already  born  at  the  time  of  the  prediction.  Now,  from 
-.vhat  we  know  of  Ezechias,  he  might  well  be  called  a  child 
at  that  very  time  (cf.  Gen.  iv.  2'.\;  III.  Kings  xii.  8;  II. 
Par.  X.  8;  Eccl.  iv.  13).  )l.  Oriental  writers  are  accustomed 
to  call  their  kings  "  gods  "  by  way  of  hyperbole.  Instances 
of  this  custom  are  found  in  Ps.  ii.  and  in  the  letter  of  the 
Persian  to  the  Armenian  king.  3.  The  ex})ression,  "  God, 
the  Mighty,"  does  not  necessarily  imply  true  divinity;  and, 
what  is  more,  at  the  time  of  Isaias  the  Messianic  idea  was 
not  yet  sufliciently  evolved  to  include  divinity  in  its  strict 
sense.  4.  In  a  wider  sense  we  find  that  at  Isaias'  time  men 
were  frequently  called  gods  (cf.  Ps.  Ixxxi.  (Ixxxii.)  1;  Jo. 
X.  34).  5.  The  very  name  of  Ezechias  fully  agrees  with  all 
the  attributes  applied  to  that  king  by  Isaias;  for  Ezechias 
signifies  "the  strength  of  God." 

But,  on  tlie  other  hand,  Ezechias  cannot  be  intended  by 
Isaias.  For  the  child  must  be  the  cause  of  the  joy  for 
Galilee  and  the  Northern  Kingdom.  Now,  Galilee  was 
never  under  Ezechias'  sway.  Again,  the  i)eace  and  joy 
predicted  as  future  under  the  child  was  never  realized  dur- 
ing the  lifetime  of  Ezechias.  Ezechias  cannot  even  by  way 
of  hyperbole  be  called  "Mighty  God,"  since  he  never  did 
anything  to  justify  that  magnificent  title.  And  what  can 
be  the  meaning  of  the  expression  "  Father  of  the  world  to 
come,"  as  applied  to  the  king  Ezechias  ? 

When  we  come  to  examine  the  reasons  advanced  by 
the  one  and  the  other  of  the  above  opponents,  we  fiiul  that 
none  of  them  is  solid  eiu)ugh  to  iu>cessitate  the  conclusion 
which  our  ojiponents  draw  from  them.  As  to  the  render- 
ing suggested  by  the  first  class  of  opponents,  it  is  opposed 
by  the  Hebrew  numner  of  speech,  by  the  text  and  the  con- 
text of  the  passage  itself.     Wlien  in  Hebrew  after  a  verb 


THE  ME8S1AS  IS  THE  PRINCE  OF  PEACE.      455 

of  -'  calling"  several  names  are  given,  they  apply  not  to  the 
person  naming,  but  to  the  person  named  (cf.  Gen.  ii.  20; 
iv.  25;  xvi.  15;  xxi.  3;  Ruth  iv.  17;  I.  Kings  i.  20;  Jer. 
xxiii.  6).  Then,  it  appears  from  the  text  that  all  the  names 
are  construed  in  the  same  manner;  hence  they  must  either 
all  apply  to  the  person  who  gives  the  name  (Abarbanel),  or 
to  the  person  named.  But  in  the  former  supposition  the 
child  would  remain  without  name,  and  in  the  latter  sup- 
position the  position  of  our  opponents  becomes  untenable. 
Finally,  the  context  shows  that  if  all  the  names  were  ap- 
plied to  the  person  naming,  they  would  form  a  series  of 
attributes  for  which  there  is  no  warrant  in  what  precedes 
and  follows;  the  context  does  not  even  so  much  as  suggest 
Jehovah.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  applied  to  the  prophetic 
child,  all  these  attributes  fit  admirably  into  the  passage. 

As  to  the  arguments  of  the  second  class  of  our  oppo- 
nents, it  suffices  to  point  out:  a.  that  in  the  prophetic  lan- 
guage the  perfect  is  often  used  instead  of  the  future; 
(d.  that  the  divine  attribute  in  Ps.  ii.  applies  not  to  a  mere 
man,  but  to  the  son  of  God,  or  the  Messias;  y.  that  the 
Oriental  writers  are  by  no  means  accustomed  to  call  emi- 
nent men  "  gods,"  unless  they  are  judges,  and  thus  repre- 
sent God's  own  power  and  wisdom ;  d.  that  even  in  this 
case  they  never  call  any  one  "  God,"  as  Isaias  does  in  the 
present  passage,  e.  As  to  what  is  said  concerning  the 
evolution  of  the  Messianic  idea,  no  one,  not  even  our  op- 
ponents, has  the  right  or  the  power  to  assign  limits  to  the 
power  or  the  will  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  speaks  through 
the  mouth  of  the  prophets;  and  moreover,  Ps.  Ixxi.  (Ixxii.) 
5,  17  and  Is.  vii.  14  express  ideas  concerning  the  Messias 
that  are  in  strict  accord  with  Is.  ix.  G. 

3.  Messianic  Character  of  the  Prophecy.— r/.  It  ap- 
pears from  II,  Kings  vii.  11;  Ps.  Ixxxviii.  (Ixxxix.);  Ixxi. 
(Ixxii.);  cxxxi.  (cxxxii.);  Prov.  viii. ;  Is.  vii.  14;  Ps.  xliv. 
(xlv.),  that  the  Messias  is  d,  mighty  king,  the  liberator  of 
his  people,  the  son  of  David,  the  triumphant  conqueror  of 
his  enemies,  the  bringer  of  peace  and  justice  and  goodness, 


456  THE  MESSIANIC  NAMES. 

tliiit  lie  is  CJod  aiul  tlic  son  of  God  and  Enmiannel.  Hence 
it  follows  tliat  lie  is  most  wonderful,  gifted  with  divine 
wisdom,  and  holding  the  divine  counsels.  Now,  the  child 
whom  Isaias  describes  accurately  agrees  with  all  these  de- 
tails, and  is  therefore  identical  with  the  Messias  of  the 
other  prophets. 

b.  The  New  Testament  confirms  this  conclusion.  For 
in  the  New  Testament  Jesus  Christ  is  so  described  as  to 
fulfil  all  the  particular  details  of  Is.  ix.  G;  Luke  ii.  10-14 
exhibits  Christ  as  a  child  recently  born  in  the  city  of  David, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  as  the  source  of  great  joy  to  all  the 
people;  Luke  ii.  23  announces  the  Messianic  light  to  have 
come  with  the  child  Christ;  Jo.  viii.  12  calls  Jesus  the  light 
of  the  world;  the  same  attribute  is  given  to  Jesus  in  Jo. 
xii.  46;  i.  9.  Again,  according  to  Isaias  the  child  is  to  be 
the  author  of  peace  for  the  tribes  of  Zabulon  and  Nephtali, 
and  Matt.  iv.  13-16  represents  Jesus  as  being  this  Author 
of  peace.- 

c.  The  patristic  testimonies,  or  rather  the  proper  refer- 
ences to  them,  explaining  one  and  all  the  prophecy  of  the 
Messias,  may  be  seen  in  Kilber's  Aiuilysis  Biblica,  ed.  II. 
vol.  i.  pp.  357  fF. 

d.  Finally,  the  unbiassed  testimony  of  the  .Synagogue  too 
has  always  regarded  the  prophecy  of  Isaias  as  referring  to 
the  Messias.  We  read  in  ^[idrash  on  Deut.  ii.  4,  sect.  1 : 
"  Kabbi  Samuel,  the  son  of  Nachnian,  said :  When  Esau 
met  Jacob,  he  said  to  him:  My  brother  Jacob,  let  us  walk 
together  in  this  world.  Jacob  replied:  Let  my  lord,  I  j)ray 
thee,  pass  over  before  his  servant  (Gen.  xxxiii.  14).  What 
is  the  meaning  of,  I  pray  thee,  jiass  over?  Jacob  said  to 
him:  I  have  yet  to  supply  the  king  ^[essias,  of  whom  it  is 
said:  Unto  us  a  child  is  born."  The  Midrash  on  Numbers 
vi.  22,  sect.  11,  has  it:  "  Rabl)i  Xathau  said,  'and  give  thee 
peace'  (Num.  vi.  26)  means  the  peace  of  the  govenuuent 
of  the  house  of  David,  as  it  is  said.  There  shall  be  no  end  of 
peace."  The  Talmudic  treatise  Sanhediin  (fol.  94,  col.  1) 
has  the  following  words  on  our  ])rophetic  pjissage:  "  Bar 


THE  MESSlAS  18  THE  PRtNCE  OF  PEACE.      457 

Kappara  expounded  at  Sepphoris:  Why  is  the  word  ^em- 
arbeh '  ('the  increase,'  of.  ix.  7)  written  with  a  closed  Mem 
(the  final  Mem,  and  not  with  the  usual  Mem)  ?  The  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  wished  to  make  Ezechias  the  Messias, 
and  Sennacherib  Gog  and  Magog.  But  the  attribute  of 
judgment  pleaded  against  it,  and  said:  David  the  king  of 
Israel  repeated  so  many  songs  and  praises,  and  thou  hast 
not  made  him  the  Messias;  and  yet  thou  art  thinking  of 
making  Ezechias  the  Messias,  for  whose  sake  so  many  mir- 
acles have  been  performed,  and  who  nevertheless  has  not 
repeated  one  song  of  praise!  So  that  counsel  was  closed 
(and  hence  the  closed  Mem)." 

Is.  IX.  1-7. 

At  the  first  time  the  land  of  Zabulon  and  the  land  of  Nephtali 
was  hghtly  touched,  and  at  the  last  the  '  way  of  the  sea  beyond 
tlie  Jordan  of  the  dalilee  of  the  Gentiles  was  heavily  loaded. 
The  people  that  walked  in  darkness  have  seen  a  great  light  ;  to 
them  that  dwelt  in  the  region  of  the  shadow  of  death  light  is 
risen.  Thou  hast  multiplied  the  nation,  and  hast  not  increased 
the  joy.  Tliey  shall  rejoice  before  thee,  as  they  that  rejoice  in 
tlie  harvest,  as  conquerors  rejoice  after  taking  a  prey,  when  tliey 
divide  the  spoils.  For  the  yoke  of  their  burden  and  the  rod  of 
their  shoulder,  and  the  sceptre  of  their  oppressor  thou  hast  over- 
come as  in  the  day  of  Madian.  For  every  -  violent  taking  of  spoils, 
with  tumult,  and  garment  mingled  with  blood,  shall  be  burnt, 

'  The  way  of  the  sea.  Tliis  expressiou  is  piinillel  to  "'the  laiul  of 
Ziibuloii  iiiul  the  land  of  Nephtali,"  along  the  seashore.  Whether 
"  beyorKl  Jordan  "  signifies  the  Perajan  district,  or  the  country  west 
of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  is  impossible  to  tell,  since  the  Hebrew  prep 
ositiou  in  this  place  means  either  "across  "  or  "on  this  side  "  of  the 
Jordan.  The  words  "was  lightly  touched"  and  "was  lieavily 
loaded  "  indicate  "  wjis  rendered  vile"  and  "was  honoied."  Instead 
of  the  phrase  "and  hast  not  increased  the  joy,"  the  Mu.ssoretes,  the 
LXX.,  the  Chaldee,  and  the  Syriac  versions,  together  with  the  Arabic 
translator  Saadias,  read  :  "and  thoii  hast  increased  the  joy  unto  it." 

■^  Every  violent  taking  of  spoils.  This  sentence  should  be  rendered: 
"  For  all  the  armor  of  the  armed  men  in  the  tumult  (or,  every  boot 
of  the  booted  warrior),  and  the  garments  rolled  in  blood,  shall 
be  for  burning,  for  fuel  of  tire."  The  meaning  of  the  passage  is 
tiiat  the  peace  sliall  be  so  great  that  uo  war  implements  will  be  further 
needed. 


468  THE  MBS8JANIC  NAMES. 

and  he  fuel  for  the  lire.  For  a  child  is  horn  to  us,  and  a  son  is 
given  to  us,  and  tiie  government  is  upon  his  shoulder ;  and 
his  '  name  shall  he  called.  Wonderful,  Counsellor,  God,  the  Migiity, 
the  Father  of  the  world  to  come,  the  Prince  of  peace.  His  empire 
shall  he  niultii)lied,  and  there  shall  be  no  end  of  peace  ;  he  shall 
sit  upon  the  ■'throne  of  David,  and  upon  his  kingdom,  to  establish 
it,  aTul  strengthen  it  with  judgment  and  with  justice,  from  lience- 
forth  and  for  ever  ;  the  zeal  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  will  perform 
this. 

Corollary. 

The  present  prophecy  is  a  most  powerful  proof,  showing 
that  even  in  the  Old  Testament  tlie  mystery  of  the  In- 
carnation was  revealed  to  the  Jews  })recisely  under  the 
concept  of  one  person,  wiio  is  both  Cod  and  man.  For  in 
other  prophecies  where  the  manhood  of  the  Messias  is 
insisted  on,  we  may  doubt  about  his  divinity;  and,  a<^ain, 
in  those  prophecies  in  which  his  divinity  is  foretold,  l*s. 
xliv.  (xlv.),  e.g.j  tlie  human  predicates  attributed  to  him 
may  be  understood  as  merely  anthropomorphic  ex})ressions. 
But  in  the  present  prophecy  both  the  Messias'  divinity  is 
clearly  indicated  and  his  humanity  is  spoken  of  in  such  a 
manner  that  no  figure  of  speech  can  exj)lain  the  expi-es- 
sions:  "Jesus  Christ  yesterday,  and  to-day,  and  tlie  same 
for  ever"  (Ileb.  xiii.  8). 

^  And  his  name  shall  be  called.  Tlic  following  names  must  be 
taken  in  pairs,  so  as  to  signify;  woiuierfid  counsellor,  migliiy  (Jod. 
fallicr  of  the  coming  a.ue,  and  prince  of  jK'ace.  The  renderings  of 
the  Kuhhiiiic  writers  and  of  tlie  Italionalisls,  who  do  not  agree  with 
the  fmegoing,  are  hardly  worth  noticing.  Aharhanel,  e  g.,  renders 
"  fatliiMof  booty  "  instead  of  "  father  of  the  world  to  come."  Ewald 
and  a  few  others  render  "  divine  hero"  instead  of  "  mighty  (lod  ;" 
l>ut  even  the  collocation  of  the  Ilelirew  words  contradicts  llii.s  render- 
ing, since  we  onurht  to  read  "gilihor  el"  instead  of  "el  gil)l)or  "  in 
orth'i'  to  ohtain  ihc  nieaiung  "divine  hero." 

^  The  throne  of  David  Nathan  in  II.  Kings  vii.  11  IT.  cxjilains 
what  is  meant  i)y  liie  throne  of  David.  For  the  propiiet  promises  to 
David  a  son  who  will  Innld  (.Jod  a  temple,  and  in  whose  posterity 
the  royal  powt  r  will  lie  ixrpelu.ated  forever.  This  eternal  kingdom 
to  \v1m(  h  the  pi(i|ili(t  icfers  in  the  present  passage  is  tlie  Church  of 
Christ,  as  may  be  inferred  from  Luke  i.  32. 


APPENDIX. 

■RABBINIC  LITERATURE. 

Throughout  the  course  of  this  work  we  have  been  fre- 
quently obliged  to  refer  to  Rabbinic  authors  and  works  not 
generally  known  to  the  public.  In  order  to  avoid  disagree- 
able interruptions  and  untimely  descriptions  of  such  writers 
and  books,  we  have  deemed  it  advisable  to  add  a  brief  out- 
line of  the  more  important  ones  by  way  of  appendix.  Since 
an  exhaustive  treatment  of  this  subject  would  fill  a  number 
of  goodly  volumes,  we  must  content  ourselves  with  a  mere 
sketch  of  names  and  dates,  without  entering  into  any  dis- 
puted points  of  chronology  or  autiiorship.  Those  who 
wish  to  study  these  questions  more  thoroughly  must  seek 
for  information  in  such  works  as  Bartolocci's  "  Bibliotheca 
magna  Rabbinica,"  Basnage's  "llistoire  des  Juifs  depuis 
Jesus  Christ  jusqu'  a  present,"  Biographic  Universelle, 
British  Encyclopedia,  Jost's  "  Geschichte  der  Israeliten 
seit  der  Zeit  der  Maccabiier  bis  auf  unsere  Tage,"  and  Wolf's 
"  Bibliotheca  Hebraea."  Since  many  of  the  Rabbinic  works 
pVesuppose  a  knowledge  of  the  existence  and  method  of  the 
Jewish  traditional  learning,  Ave  shall  endeavor  to  describe 
also  the  latter  in  so  far  as  the  nature  of  the  present  work 
requires.  Students  who  wish  to  give  more  attention  to  this 
matter  will  find  references  to  books  aiul  writers  on  the  sub- 
ject in  Myers  "  Qab1)ahih  "  (Philadelphia,  1888)  and  Eders- 
iieim's"Tlie  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiali,"  vol. 
ii.,  pp.  C)S'.t  ff. 

Besides  tbeir  written  revelations,  the  Jews  had  a  system 
of  traditional  doctrine,  which  is  known  in  our  days  by  the 
name    Qabbalah   (reception).     l)ut    since  the  meaning   of 

■l.VJ 


460  APPENDIX. 

the  term  has  become  very  comprelieiisive,  we  may  divide  it 
for  convenience'  sake  into  an  artificial  and  a  doctrinal  one. 
The  artificial  (^abhalah  may  be  subdivided  into  the  theo- 
retic and  tiie  practical.  The  latter  diders  little  from  magic, 
and  is  said  to  have  effected  portentous  miracles  by  its  spells 
and  charms  (see  Edzard's  edit,  of  chapter  'I  of  tract  Abodah 
Zarah,  pj).  340  f.).  The  principal  kinds  of  the  forniei'  are 
three:  Gematria,  Notaricon,  and  Temurah. 

1.  Gematria  considers  the  letters  of  a  word  according  to 
their  numerical  value,  and  infers  from  the  identity  of  tlie 
numerical  value  of  two  expressions  the  identity  of  their 
meaning.  Thus,  e.g.,  Yabo'  Siiiloh  represents  the  value 
of  10  -I-  2  +  1  +  300  +  10  +  30  +  5  =  358;  Mashiach  too 
is  equivalent  to  40  -\-  300  4-  10  -}-  ^  ~  35S.  Consequently, 
the  expression  Yabo'  Shiloh  (Gen.  xlix.  10)  is  identical  in 
meaning  with  Mashiach. 

2.  Notaricon  takes  every  letter  of  a  phrase  to  be  the 
initial  letter  or  the  abbreviation  of  a  word,  or  it  forms  the 
initials  and  final  letters  of  several  expressions  into  separate 
words.  Thus,  e.g.,  'Adam  is  explained  l)y  'Aphar  (dust). 
Dam  (blood),  and  Marah  (gall);  similarly,  by  reversing  the 
process,  the  three  words  'Aphar,  Dam,  and  Marah  may  be 
ranged  under  Notaricon  by  being  explained  as  meaning 
'Adam.  Two  other  methods  of  interpretation  belong  to 
this  second  class  of  doctrinal  Qabbalah.  'J'he  words  of 
several  verses  in  the  Hebrew  text  are  written  one  under  the 
other,  aiul  the  letters  are  formed  into  words  by  reading 
them  vertically,  or  the  words  are  ranged  in  squares,  and 
then  read  cither  vertically  or  boustroijhedon. 

3.  Temurah  (permutation)  is  a  mode  l)y  which  a  word 
is  transformed  into  a  dilTerent  one  by  a  transjmsitioii  or  ;i 
systemali(t  change  of  consonants,  'i'hus  letters  of  the  sanx' 
word  mav  Ix'  transposed,  or  si'ver.tl  woi-ds  may  l)e  joiiu'd 
together  Mild  their  letters  redivided  into  new  words. 
"  Name,"  (>.g.,  thus  becomes  '*  mane;  "  "  Hebrew  sport  "  may 
bo  read  '*  he  brews  port."  The  principrJ  systematic  changes 
of  letters  are   known  bv  llie   innies     Alliam  "  and  "Ath- 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE.  461 

bash."  In  "  Albam  "  the  twenty-two  letters  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet  are  divided  into  two  halves;  one  half  is  placed 
above  tlie  other,  and  the  two  consonants  which  thns  become 
associated  are  interchanged.  In  this  manner  Aleph  be- 
comes Lamed,  Beth  becomes  Mem,  etc.  If  the  last  letter 
of  the  alphabet  is  interchanged  with  the  first,  the  last  but 
one  with  the  second,  and  so  forth,  Aleph  becomes  Tav, 
Beth  becomes  Shin,  so  that  we  obtain  the  cipher-alphabet 
known  as  Athbash.  This  is  applied  in  Jer.  xxvi.  2G;  li, 
41,  where  "  Sheshach"  is  written  for  Babel,  and  in  Jer.  li. 
1  "^  Leb  Qamay"  stands  for  Kashdim. 

But  all  this  belongs  to  the  artificial  Qabbalah,  and  has 
been  mentioned  here  only  for  the  sake  of  completeness.  It 
is  the  doctrinal  Qabbalah  that  concerns  our  question 
directly.  Its  principal  divisions  are:  a.  the  exegetical  and 
b.  the  systematic  Qabbalah. 

A.  The  former  dwells:  1.  on  letters  (e.g..  Is.  ix.  7,  where 
Talmud  Sanhedrin,  fol.  94,  col.  J,  lengthily  explains  the 
closed  Mem);  2.  on  words  (e.g.,  zoth  of  Ps.  cxviii.  22; 
xxvii.  3;  Gen.  ix.  12, 17;  Jer.  ix.  23;  Gen.  xxix.  27;  iii.  13; 
Lev.  xvi.  3,  etc.,  is  explained  in  Tikkune  Zohar  c.  xix.  fol. 
39,  1 ;  c.  XX.  fol.  48,  2;  c.  xcviii.  princ,  etc,  as  meaning  the 
Messias) ;  3.  on  whole  verses  and  sections. 

To  understand  the  character  of  this  exegesis  better,  it 
must  be  observed  that  the  principal  code  of  the  Qabbalists 
is  the  Zohar,  i.e..  Light,  so  called  from  the  words  "Let 
there  be  light "  (Gen.  i.  4)  with  the  explanation  of  which 
the  book  opens.  The  work  is  a  commentary  on  the  Penta- 
teuch, according  to  its  division  into  fifty-two  hebdomadal 
lessons,  and  is  written  in  Aramaic.  Interspersed  through- 
out the  Zohar  and  bound  together  with  it  are  the  following 
dissertations:  1.  Siphra  d'Tzinnthah,  or  the  Book  of 
Secrets,  containing  discourses  on  cosmogony  and  domo- 
nology;  2.  Idrah  Kabbah,  "  the  Great  Assembly,"  or  dis- 
courses of  Bnbbi  Simon  to  his  numerous  assenildy  of  dis- 
cii)les  on  the  form  of  the  Deity  and  on  Piu'umatology;  3. 
Idrah  Zutah,  "the  Small  Assembly,"  or  discourses  on  the 


462  APPENDIX. 

Sojiliiroth  delivered  by  K.  Simon  to  tlie  small  congregation 
of  liis  six  surviving  disci])k's;  4.  Suba  d'  Mispatim,  "  the 
Aged  One  m  Misi)atim"  (Ex.  xxi.-xxiv.,  inch),  a  work  in 
which  the  pro])het  Elias  discourses  with  K.  Simon  on  the 
doctrine  of  transmigration;  5.  Midrash  Ruth,  a  fragmentary 
commentary  on  the  book  of  Kuth;  C.  Sepher  ]Iabi)ahir, 
"Book  of  Brightness;"  7.  Tosephtah,  "Additions  and 
Supplements; "  8.  Eayah  Mechemnah,  "the  Faithful  Shep- 
herd," recording  discussions  between  Moses  the  faithful 
shepherd,  Elias,  and  Ix.  Simon  ben  Yochai;  9.  Ilaikhaloth, 
"  the  Mansions  and  Abodes,"  describes  the  structure  of 
paradise  and  hell;  10.  Sithrai  Torah,  "  the  Mysteries  of  the 
Pentateuch,"  describing  the  evolution  of  the  Sephiroth ;  11. 
Midrash  Ilannee'lam,  "the  Hidden  Interpretation,"  de- 
ducing esoteric  doctrijies  from  the  uan-atives  of  the  Penta- 
teuch; 12.  Raze  d'Razin,  "  the  Secret  of  Secrets,"  treating 
of  physiognomy  and  i)sychology;  13.  Midrash  'Ilazeeth, 
"  Jnter])retation  of  the  Song  of  Solomon;"  14,  ^laa'mar 
Tochazi,  "Discourse  (beginning  with)  Come  and  See;"  15. 
Yenukah,  "  the  Discourse  of  the  Youth,"  gives  discourses 
by  young  men  of  superhuman  origin  on  the  mysteries  of 
ablutions;  IG.  Pekudah,  "  Kxplanation  of  the  Pentateuch  ;  " 
17.  Ilibburah  Kadma'a,  "the  Primary  Assembly;"  IS. 
Mathanithan,  "  We  have  learned,"  or  we  have  traditionally 
received  the  doctrines.  All  of  these  are  found  in  the  Sulz- 
bach  and  Cremona  editions  of  the  Zohar;  the  Mantua 
edition  wants  nn.  3,  5,  (5,9,  12,  13,  14,  15,  IG,  17.  The 
Cremona  edition,  published  1558-15G0,  is  in  folio  and  is 
called  the  Creat  Zohar.  Most  western  Jews  use  it.  The 
i^rantua  edition,  ]niblished  l)y  R.  Meir  ben  E])hraim  da 
I'adova  (1558),  is  in  quarto,  in  three  volumes,  and  is  called 
the  Little  Zohar.      Italian  ami  Oriental  .Tews  use  it. 

/)'.  Tlie  systematic  (^ai)balah  contains  u)uler  certain 
symbols  a  system  of  doctriiu'  eml)racing  the  nature  and  the 
attributes  ol"  (!od,  the  cosmogony,  the  creatioji  of  angels 
and  of  man.  the  destiny,  the  atonement,  the  import  of  the 
law.     'i'lie  juincip.il  symbols  are,  according  to  Schdttgen, 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE.  463 

four:  1.  the  Qabbalistic  Tree;  2.  the  Chariot-throne  of 
Ezeeliiel;  3.  the  Work  of  Creation;  4,  tlie  Ancient  of  days. 

A  short  notice  on  the  manner  in  whicli  tlie  revealed  trutli 
has  been  preserved  in  the  Synagogue  will  throw  more  light 
on  this  subject,  and  facilitate  future  reference.  We  shall 
name  both  the  agents  that  have  taken  part  in  preserving  the 
revealed  truth,  and  also  the  principal  books  written  for  the 
same  jourpose: 

1.  a.  The  first  series  of  Jewish  receivers  and  transmitters 
of  revelation  may  be  called  the  proj)hetic  school.  All  the 
prophets  wrote  their  works  under  divine  inspiration,  and, 
besides,  the  later  prophets  collected  those  inspired  books 
that  had  been  written  before  their  time.  The  Introduction 
to  the  Yad-Chazaka  (a  commentary  on  the  Talmud)  of 
Maiuu:)uides  gives  the  following  series  of  twenty-two  proph- 
ets as  the  principal  bearers  of  tradition: 

1.  Moses  (about  1537-1457  is.c);  concerning  the  manner 
in  which  he  taught  Aaron,  Eleazar,  Itamar,  the  Ancients, 
and  especially  Josue,  see  Talmud,  Erubin,  fol.  54  verso. 

2.  Josue  (about  1457-1400  B.C.;  Jos.  xxiv.  29). 

3.  Phinees,  the  son  of  Eleazar  and  the  grandson  of  Aaron, 
togetlier  with  the  then  existing  Ancients  (about  1400-1210 
B.C.;  Jos.  xxiv.  33). 

4.  Ileli  the  high-priest  (about  1210-1170  B.C.;  I.Kings 
iv.  18). 

5.  Samuel  the  prophet  (about  1170-1080  B.C.;  I.  Kings 
iii.  20  f.;  xxv.  1). 

G.  David  the  king  (about  1080-1021  B.C.;  I.  Kings  xvi. 
13;  II.  Kings  xxiii.  1  If.;  U\.  Kings  ii.  10  f.). 

7.  A  bias  of  Silo,  the  Levite,  who  had  according  to  tradi- 
tion been  born  in  Egyj^t  and  instructed  by  Moses,  so  that 
at  this  period  he  was  more  than  500  years  old  (about  1021- 
970  B.C.;  III.  Kings  xi.  29;  xiv.  2  ff.). 

8.  Elias  the  prophet  (about  970-902  B.C. ;  III.  Kings 
xvii.  ff.). 

9.  Eliseus  the  prophet  (about  902-840  B.C.;  IV.  Kings 
ii.  9  ff.). 


404  APPENDIX. 

10.  Yoviidu  the  hiirlipriest  (ubout  878-830  B.C.;  IV. 
Kings  xi.*4  tT.;  II.  I'ar.  xxiii.  1  \1.). 

11.  Zjicliarias  the  prophet,  a  son  of  Yoyada,  probably 
slain  between  the  temple  and  the  altar  (Matt,  xxiii.  35). 
This  is  not  the  propliet  Zacharias  whose  i)ropheeies  are 
embodied  in  tlie  Old  Testament  canon  (tibout  830-800  B.C.; 
II.  Par.  xxiv.  '^0  f.). 

12.  Osee  the  prophet  (about  800-770  B.C.;  Os.). 

13.  Amos  the  j)roi)het  (about  770-730  B.C.;  Amos). 

14.  Isuias  tl)e  prophet  (about  759-090  B.C.;  Is.). 

15.  Micheas  the  prophet  (about  759-700  B.C.;  Mich.). 
10.  Joel  the  proi)het  (about  780-720  B.C.;  Joel). 

17.  Nahum  the  proi)het  (about  759-700  B.C.;  Nah.). 

18.  Ilabaciic  th(!  proi)het  (about  0(i()  (ilO  B.C.;  Hab.). 

19.  Soi>houias  the  propliet  (about  (i41-(ilO  n.c. ;  .So])h.). 

20.  Jeremias  tlu;  propliet  (about  ()".'S-583  B.C.;  Jer.). 

21.  liarueh  (about  (i00-5S3  B.C.;  Bar.). 

22.  Ksdras  (about  530-400  B.C.;  Esdr.). 

It  must  be  remembered  that  each  of  these  bearers  of  tra- 
dition was  assisted  by  a  "betli  din,"  a  liouse  of  justice. 
The  last  named  was  president  of  the  so-called  "Great 
Synagogue,"  com])osed  of  120  members.  The  prophets 
Aggeus,  Zacharias,  Malachias,  and  probably  also  Daniel, 
Ananias,  Misael,  Azarias,  Nehemias,  Mardocheus,  Belsan, 
and  Zorobaliel  were  of  the  number.  The  last  surviving 
member  was  Simeon  the  Just;  but  Esdras  having  collected 
the  insinred  writings  of  the  Old  Testament,  Simeon  must 
be  numbered  among  the  Taunaim  rather  than  among  the 
prophets. 

h.  "  Tannaim  "  is  the  plural  of  Tanna,  Doctor.  As  the 
])rophets  are  either  the  authors  or  the  collectors  of  the  Old 
Testament,  so  are  the  Taniiaim  either  the  authors  or  the 
collectors  of  the  Mishna,  i.e.,  of  a  series  of  commentaries 
on  the  inspired  books  and  of  those  truths  that  were  believed 
to  have  been  revealed  to  Moses  on  Mount  Siniii,  and  to  the 
other  })atriarchs  and  ])ro])hets,  without  having  ever  been 
committed    to    writing.      In    eiiumcrating    the    successive 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE  465 

links  of  the  bearers  of  tradition  we  shall  again  follow  Mai- 
nionicles. 

23.  Simeon  the  Just  has  already  been  mentioned  as  the 
last  member  of  the  Great  Synagogue.  He  must  have  lived 
till  about  400  B.C.  It  was  he  that  originated  the  great 
Jewish  council  of  the  Sanhedrin. 

24.  Antigonus  of  Socho  was  Simeon's  successor.  Drach 
(I'Eglise  et  la  Synagogue,  i.  p.  143)  is  of  opinion  that 
Antigonus  flourished  about  300  B.C.,  but  Buxtorf  (Lexic. 
Chald.,  under  the  word  "  'Amora ")  maintains  that  the 
period  of  the  great  Synagogue  and  of  Simeon  the  Just  is 
placed  by  some  between  400  and  300  B.C.,  by  others  be- 
tween 400  and  200  B.C. 

25.  After  Antigonus  begins  a  double  series  of  Tannaim, 
each  link  of  which  is  composed  of  the  president  and  the 
vice-president  of  the  Sanhedrin;  the  couples  are  called 
"Zogoth."  Joseph  ben  Joezer  and  Joseph  ben  Jochanan 
were  the  first  couple.  The  former  was  Nasi,  or  president; 
the  latter,  "  Ab-beth-din,"  or  vice-president. 

26.  Joshua  ben  Perachiah  and  Nitai  of  Arbela  were  the 
next  Zoga,  Joseph  was  persecuted  by  Alexander  Jannajus 
and  fled  to  Alexandria. 

27.  Judah  ben  Tabbai  succeeded  as  president,  and  Simon 
ben  Shetach  as  vice-president.  According  to  Lightfoot, 
one  of  their  many  eminent  actions  consisted  in  burning 
eighty  witches  in  one  day. 

28.  These  were  followed  by  Shemaiah  and  Abtalion,  both 
proselytes  of  justice  and  descendants  of  Sennacherib  (IV. 
Kings  xix.  22).  They  are  probably  identical  with  the 
Sameas  and  Pollio  of  Joseph  us. 

29.  The  succeeding  president  was  Ilillel,  the  vice-presi- 
dent Shammai.  Hillel  is  sometimes  called  the  Babylonian, 
because  he  had  been  born  in  that  city,  though  he  belonged 
on  his  mother's  side  to  the  family  of  David.  When  forty 
years  old,  he  came  to  Jerusalem;  forty  years  he  studied  the 
law,  and  forty  years  he  was  president  of  the  Sanhedrin. 
Shammai  and  Hillel  were  theological  antagonists,  and  their 


4()(;  APPENDIX. 

pupils  iidliored  so  zealously  to  their  masters'  tenets  tliat 
their  wrangles  sometimes  ended  in  hlooilsiied  and  murder, 
llillel  always  gave  a  mild  inter])retation  of  the  Law,  while 
kShammai  was  a  legal  rigorist.  The  influenec  of  these  two 
doetors  on  the  Jewish  mind  was  permanent. 

30.  The  next  couple  of  tradition-bearers  consisted  of 
Rabban  Jochanan  ben  Zaccai  and  Kabban  .Simeon  ben 
llillel.  Some  writers  liave  endeavored  to  identify  this 
Simeon  with  the  Simeon  of  St.  Luke's  gospel,  who  took 
Jesus  in  his  arms  (Luke  ii.  '25  f.).  To  this  circumstance 
they  attribute  the  ill-will  against  Simeon  shown  in  the 
Talmud.  For  l)()th  the  treatises  Aboth  and  llaliklnith- 
'Ohun,  though  ])r()fessedly  discussing  the  Fathers  of  Ti'adi- 
tion,  omit  the  name  of  Simeon.  Other  Rabbinic  writers 
enumerate  Rabban  Simeon  among  the  descendants  of  llil- 
lel, but  give  no  further  particuhirs  of  his  person  or  his 
teaching.  Still  there  are  serious  dillieulties  against  the 
view  that  Hab])an  Simeon  is  identical  with  the  old  man 
Simeon;  the  chronology  of  the  gospel  and  the  exalted 
position  of  the  Rabljan  furnish  probably  the  most  striking 
ones.  It  must  here  also  be  ol)served  that  the  title  Rabban 
was  above  that  of  Isasi,  or  president  of  the  Sanhedrin. 
Simeon  was  therefore  not  a  mere  vice-jiresident,  but  he 
had  the  same  authority  as  Rabban  Jochanan.  A  number 
of  scholars  omit  the  name  of  Jochanan  ben  Zaccai  in  con- 
nection with  Rabban  Simeon,  and  make  him  temporary 
})resident  after  Simeon  l)eii  Gamaliel.  Thus  liuxtorf  (I.e.) 
and  Milman  (History  of  the  Jews,  ii.  p   411). 

'.\\.  (Jamaliel  (ben  Simeon)  is  the  next  link  of  tradition. 
lie  is  well  known  as  the  teacher  of  St.  Paul;  St.  Barnabas 
and  th(!  ])r()t()-martyr  St.  Stephen  also  were  his  jnii)ils. 
Later  he  himself  became  a  Chi'istian;  the  martyrology 
for  August  ;5  mentions  his  name  together  with  that  of  his 
son  Abibon.  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Bede,  and  other 
writers  are  of  opinion  that  (iamaliel  was  a  secret  adherent 
of  Christ  even  when  he  defended  the  apostles  before  the 
Sanhedrin   (Acts  v.    34    f.).     At   his   own   desire   he  was 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE.  467 

buried  in  the  sepulchre  of  St.  tStepheu,  whose  remains  lie 
had  entombed  in  his  own  house;  the  relics  of  both  Avere 
discovered  in  415  A.D.,  a  special  revelation  having  directed 
the  priest  Lucian  to  the  spot.  8ee  Martyrol.  and  Bolland- 
ists. 

32.  Rabban  Simeon  II.  (ben  Gamaliel)  was  the  successor 
of  his  father. 

According  to  Buxtorf,  Rabban  Jochanan  ben  Zaccai  held 
Simeon's  place  for  a  time.  The  purity  and  honor  of  the 
Law  had  failed,  and  Pharisaism  had  died  with  Gamaliel. 
Simeon  II.  is  said  to  have  flourished  between  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  temple  and  80  a.d.  Drach  (1.  c.)  gives  Rabbi 
Judah  hakkadosh  as  the  successor  of  Simeon  II.  But 
Maimonides,  whom  Drach  follows,  has  evidently  omitted 
several  links,  which  we  supply  from  Buxtorf  and  Milman 
without  adding  any  number,  so  as  to  indicate  by  the 
numbered  series  that  of  Maimonides.  Simeon's  successor 
was  Gamaliel  II.  of  Jabneh  (ben  Simeon  II.) ;  he  was 
followed  by  Simeon  III.  (ben  Gamaliel  II.),  who  was  the 
first  patriarch  of  Tiberias. 

Buxtorf  maintains  that  the  school  of  Jabneh  had  been 
founded  by  Rabban  Jochanan  ben  Zaccai  when  Jerusalem 
and  the  temple  were  besieged.  Jost  (Judenthum,  ii.  IG  f.) 
gives  the  Rabbinic  belief  concerning  the  various  transfers 
of  the  Sanhedrin:  from  Gazitli  (the  temple  chamber)  to 
Khanoth  (the  shops  in  the  outer  court);  from  Khanoth  to 
Jerusalem,  from  Jerusalem  to  Jabneh,  from  Jabneh  to 
Osha,  from  Oshato  Shepharaam,  f rom  Shepharaam  to  Beth- 
shaaraim,  from  Bethshaaraim  to  Sepphoris,  from  Sepphoris 
to  Tiberias.  At  Osha,  Shepharaam,  Bethshaaraim,  and 
Sepphoris  the  council  cannot  have  stayed  long,  since  Gama- 
liel II.  Avas  its  president  at  Jabneh,  and  his  successor, 
Simeon  III.,  was  president  at  Tiberias. 

33.  Simeon  III.  was  followed  by  Judah  (ben  Simeon  III.). 
Judah  was  born  about  130  years  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  at  Zipporis  or  Sepphoris,  an  important  and 
strongly  fortified   city   of   Galilee,  contiguous   to   Mount 


468  APPENDIX. 

('Hrniel  and  Ciuia,  uiid  six  miles  west  of  Nazareth.  At  a 
later  period  the  town  was  called  Diocivsarea.  It  is  also 
reported  to  be  the  birth-place  of  St.  Ann,  the  mother  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  Judah,  called  "  hakkadosh  "  (the  holy)  or 
*'  hannasi  "  (the  Nasi,  or  president  by  eminence),  was  by  far 
the  most  renowned  of  all  the  later  Tannaim.  His  adviser 
was  Rabbi  Pinchas  ben  Yair.  Not  to  mention  many  other 
things  he  did  or  decided,  we  proceed  at  once  to  his  princi- 
])al  work,  the  Mishna,  which  l)e  collected  and  finished. 
The  beginning  of  such  a  collection  had  been  made  by  the 
preceding  Rabbis,  such  as  R.  Akiba  and  R.  ]\reir;  but  only 
single  halachoth  (laws  of  custom)  had  I)eeii  committed  to 
writing  without  system  and  order.  1{.  Judah  examined 
what  had  been  written,  completed  the  wiiting  of  the 
halachoth,  and  arranged  all  systematically.  The  language 
used  is  tliat  found  in  the  later  Old  Testament  books,  en- 
riched by  many  Aramaic,  Latin,  and  (Jreitk  words.  Among 
the  Jews  of  Bal>ylon  only  the  work  of  Judah  was  received 
as  having  authority,  while  in  Palestine  certain  later  addi- 
tions enjoyed  the  authority  of  the  Mishna. 

The  elements  of  which  the  Misha  is  composed  have  been 
stated  above  in  general  terms.  Both  Drach  (op.  cit.  v.  1, 
})p.  151  f.)  and  Maimonides  (General  Preface  to  Comm.  on 
the  Mishna)  reduce  them  to  five:  1.  Explanations  and 
developments  of  the  written  law  attributed  to  Moses;  2. 
unwritten  ordinances  which  God  gave  to  Moses  on  Siiuii; 
o.  the]irecepts  found  by  the  conjectures  and  investigations 
of  the  doctors;  4.  decrees  issued  by  the  prophets  and  the 
hiter  doctors,  in  order  to  insure  a  more  exact  observance  of 
the  Law;  5.  rules  of  conduct,  which  often  refer  to  cir- 
cumstances of  the  civil  and  social  life,  without  adding  to 
or  detracting  from  the  written  Law.  St.  Epiphanius  most 
]irobably  understood  the  first  four  elements  by  his  four 
"deuteroses"  (ILer.  ',*3,  p.  2'24).  For  "  deuterosis"  is  the 
Greek  word  for  ^[ishna,  both  words  meaning  "  rejietition;" 
the  Mishna  is  thus  viewed  as  a  re})etition  of  the  written 
Law.     By  this  exj)lanation  one  of  Morin's  arguments  for 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE.  469 

the  lute  origin  of  the  Mishna  is  answered;  for  Epiphaniiis 
expressly  refers  to  it  in  the  al)ove  passage. 

A  general  outline  of  the  ])lan  of  the  Mishna  is  not  out 
of  place  here.  The  hook  is  divided  into  six  "  Sedarim  " 
(orders,  dispositions,  divisions) ;  each  "  Seder  "  is  subdi- 
vided into  "  niassikhtoth  "  (treatises),  each  "  massekheth  " 
into  "perakim"  (chapters),  each  "porek"  into  paragraphs, 
called  Mishnas.  The  division  into  "'  sedarim "  (orders) 
must  have  preceded  the  time  of  R.  Judah,  since  the  Targum 
of  Jonathan  ben  Uziel  (Ex.  xxvi.  9),  and  the  Chaldee 
paraphrases  (Cant.  i.  2;  v.  10)  refer  to  it. 

The  following  list  gives  the  various  divisions  and  sub- 
divisions of  the  Mishna: 

A.  Seder  zeraim  (order  of  seeds)  contains  eleven  nias- 
sikhtoth: 

1.  Massekhetli  perakliotli  (treatise  of  blessings)  gives  in 
nine  chapters  precepts  concerning  prayer  and  thanksgiving 
for  the  fruits  o£  the  eartli  and  other  blessings  of  God. 

2.  Massekheth  pe'ah  (treatise  of  the  corner)  contains 
eight  chapters  on  harvesting  and  leaving  corners  of  the 
harvest-field  for  the  poor. 

3.  Massekheth  deniai  (treatise  of  the  doubtful)  settles 
in  seven  chapters  doubts  regarding  the  obligation  of  titlies 
for  certain  fruits. 

4.  Massekheth  kilaim  (treatise  of  the  heterogeneous) 
regulates  in  nine  chapters  the  mixing  of  certain  kinds  of 
seed. 

5.  Massekheth  shebiith  (treatise  of  the  seventh)  has  ten 
chapters  on  the  sabbath  year. 

6.  Massekheth  terumah  (treatise  on  oblation)  prescribes 
in  eleven  chapters  various  kinds  of  free-will  gifts. 

7.  Masseklieth  ma'asher  rislion  (treatise  on  the  first  tithe) 
regulates  in  five  chapters  the  tithes  belonging  to  the  Levites. 

8.  Massekheth  ma'asher  sheni  (treatise  on  the  second 
tithe)  has  five  chapters  on  the  tithes  which  the  Levites  had 
to  pay  to  the  priests. 

9.  Massekheth  challah  (treatise  of  the  cake)  describes  in 


470  APPEND  IX. 

four  chapters  the  cuke  wliicli  the  women  Imd  to  offer  to  the 
priests. 

10,  Massekhetli  'orhih  (treatise  on  tlie  prei)iic(')  lias 
three  elia})ters  on  tlie  fruits  of  young  trees,  ealk'd  prepuce. 

11.  Massekheth  bikkuriiu  (treatise  on  tlie  iirst-truits) 
examines  in  four  chapters  what  first-fruits  should  \)v  brought 
into  the  temple.  At  the  end  of  this  seder  is  added  a  chap- 
ter entitled  "Androgynos"  (hermaphrodite),  which  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  Heraitoth. 

B.  Seder  Mo'ed  (order  of  festivals)  contains  twelve  mas- 
sikhtoth : 

1.  Massekhetli  shal)batli  (treatise  on  the  Sabbath)  has 
twenty-four  clia})ters  on  the  keeping  of  the  Sabliatli. 

3.  'Eriibin  (treatise  on  mixings)  shows  in  ten  chapters 
how  many  neighbors  migbt  be  united  into  one  legal  house 
hold  by  jdacing,  on  the  evening  of  the  Sab1)ath,  the  food  in 
certain  positions. 

3.  Pesaeli  (treatise  on  the  I'assover)  gives  ten  chapters 
on  the  celebration  of  the  feast  of  Passover. 

4.  Shekalim  (treatise  on  shekels)  regulates  in  eight  chap- 
ters the  individual  contributions  towards  the  sacrificial  ex- 
penses. 

5.  Yoma  (treatise  on  the  day)  contains  eight  chapters  on 
the  keeping  of  the  day  of  Atonement. 

G.  Sukkali  (treatise  on  the  tent)  gives  in  five  chapters 
the  ritual  for  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

7.  lietzah  (treatise  on  the  Qgg),  so  called  because  it  be- 
gins with  an  investigation  whether  one  may  eat  on  a  feast- 
(hiy  the  egg  which  a  lien  has  laid  on  the  same  day;  then  it 
gives  in  five  chapters  other  works  lawful  or  unlawful  on 
feast-days,  excepting  the  Sabbath. 

8.  Hosh  hasshanah  (treatise  on  the  new  year)  contains 
four  chapters  on  the  regulations  concerning  the  Feast  of 
Kew  Year,  which  falls  on  the  new  moon  of  the  month  of 
Tisri. 

0.  'I'a'anith  (treatise  on  fasting)  has  four  chapters  on 
fasting. 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE.  471 

10.  Meghillah  (treatise  on  the  roll)  gives  four  chapters 
on  the  feast  of  Purim,  at  which  the  roll-book  of  Esther  had 
to  be  read. 

11.  Mo'ed  katon  (treatise  on  the  small  feasts)  regulates 
in  three  chapters  the  minor  festivals. 

12.  (Hiagbigha  treats  in  three  chapters  of  the  triple  an- 
nual journey  to  Jerusalem  prescribed  by  Ex.  xxiii.  17. 

C.  Seder  nashini  (order  of  women)  has  seven  Massikh- 
toth : 

1.  Massekheth  yebamoth  (treatise  on  levirate  affinities) 
has  sixteen  cha2)ters  on  marrying  a  deceased  brother's  wife, 
who  has  had  no  children  by  her  husband. 

2.  Kethuboth  (treatise  on  contracts)  has  thirteen  chap- 
ters on  matrimonial  contracts,  etc. 

3.  Nedarim  (treatise  on  vows)  contains  eleven  chapters 
on  vows. 

4.  Neziroth  (treatise  on  the  Nazarites)  gives  nine  chap- 
ters on  the  special  vows,  the  life,  etc.,  of  tlie  Nazarites. 

5.  Gittin  (treatise  on  the  bills  of  divorce)  explains  in  nine 
chapters  the  laws  concerning  divorce. 

G.  Sotah  (treatise  on  the  declining  one)  has  nine  chapters 
on  women  convicted  or  suspected  of  adultery. 

7.  Kiddnshim  (treatise  on  betrothal)  has  four  chapters 
on  betrothment. 

D.  .Seder  Nezikim  (order  of  damages)  has  ten  Massikh- 
toth : 

1.  Massekheth  baba  kama  (treatise  on  the  first  gate) 
considers  in  ten  chapters  the  damages  sustained  by  men 
and  beasts  from  one  anotlier. 

2.  Baba  metzi'a  (treatise  on  the  middle  gate)  has  ten 
chapters  on  things  found  and  deposited,  etc. 

3.  Baba  bathra  (treatise  on  the  last  gate)  contains  ten 
cha[)ters  on  buying,  selling,  inheritances,  etc. 

4.  Sanhedriii  consists  of  eleven  chapters  on  tlie  Great 
Council,  })unishments,  witnesses.  Judges,  and  the  reward  in 
the  other  life. 


472  APPENDIX. 

5.  Miikkoth  (treatise  on  stripes)  contains  three  chapters 
on  the  40  stripes  sjjoken  of  in  Dent.  xxv.  W. 

G.  Shebu'oth  (treatise  on  oaths)  states  in  eight  chapters 
the  regnhitions  concerning  oaths. 

7.  'Edaioth  (treatise  on  testimony)  has  eight  chapters 
respecting  witnesses, 

8.  'Aboth  (treatise  on  the  Fatliers)  contains  six  chapters 
abont  the  Jewish  fathers. 

9.  Iloraioth  (treatise  on  statutes)  contains  three  chapters 
on  tlie  hiws  according  to  which  every  one  must  judge  in 
cases  of  trial. 

10.  'Abodah  zarah  (treatise  on  foreign  service),  also  called 
'abodah  elilim  (service  of  idols)  or  'abodah  kokhabim  (ser- 
vice of  the  stars),  consists  of  five  chaptei's  concerning  idol- 
atry and  communion  with  the  idolatrous  Christians.  This 
massekhcth  is  omitted  in  the  Basel  edition  of  the  Mishna. 

E.  Seder  kodashim  (order  of  holy  things)  contains  eleven 
massikhtoth: 

1.  Massekhcth  zebachim  (treatise  on  sacrifices)  contains 
fourteen  chapters  I'egarding  sacrifices. 

2.  Menachoth  (treatise  on  oblations)  gives  thirteen  chap- 
ters regarding  the  evening  offerings. 

3.  Chollin  (treatise  on  the  unclean)  distinguishes  in 
twelve  ("ha[)ters  clean  and  unclean  animals. 

4.  Hekhoroth  (treatise  on  the  first-born)  contains  nine 
chapters  regarding  the  first-born  of  animals. 

5.  Arakhin  (treatise  on  valuation)  vahu'S  in  nine  chap- 
ters the  things  dedicated  to  God. 

G.  Temurah  (treatise  on  i)ermutation)  has  seven  chapters 
on  the  substitution  of  one  sacrifice  for  another. 

7.  Kcritlinlli  (trciilisc  on  cutting  olT)  contains  six  chap- 
ters r)n  the  exclusion  of  a  soul  from  the  future  life. 

S.  Mc'ilali  (treatise  on  prevarication)  cojisid(>rs  in  six 
olinptcrs  the  sins  cnniinittcd  in  sacriticiug  animals. 

!♦.  '['amid  (treatise  on  the  perpetual)  has  six  chapters 
concerning  the  daily  sacrifices. 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE.  473 

10.  Middotli  (treatise  on  measni-es)  relates  in  five  cluqi- 
ters  tlie  measurements  of  the  temple. 

11.  Kinnim  (treatise  on  the  nests)  contains  in  three  chap- 
ters a  treatise  on  bird's  nests. 

F.  Seder  taharoth  (order  of  jnirifications)  contains  twelve 
massikhtoth: 

1.  Kelim  (treatise  on  vessels)  contains  thirty  chapters  on 
the  purification  of  furniture,  clothes,  etc. 

2.  Oholoth  (treatise  on  tents)  considers  in  eighteen  chap- 
ters the  uncleanness  of  houses,  etc. 

3.  Nega'im  (treatise  on  leprosy)  has  fourteen  chapters  on 
lepers. 

4.  Parah  (treatise  on  the  heifer)  contains  twelve  chapters 
respecting  the  red  heifer.     Num.  xix. 

5.  Tahoroth  .(treatise  on  purifications)  describes  in  ten 
cha^jters  the  purification  of  a  person  made  unclean  by 
touching  anything  unclean. 

G.  Mikva'oth  (treatise  on  baths)  considers  in  ten  chapters 
the  basins  of  water  in  which  the  Jews  washed  in  case  of 
uncleanness. 

7.  Niddah  (treatise  on  impurity)  contains  ten  chapters 
on  the  uncleanness  of  women. 

8.  Makhshirin  (treatise  on  purifiers)  describes  in  six 
chapters  the  purifying  fluids. 

9.  Zabim  (treatise  on  the  flow)  speaks  in  five  sections  of 
nocturnal  pollution. 

10.  Tebul  Jom  (treatise  on  the  washing  on  the  same 
day)  has  four  cha2)ters  respecting  purification  on  the  same 
day. 

11.  Jadaim  (treatise  on  hands)  regulates  in  four  chapters 
the  washing  of  hands. 

12.  Uqtsin  (treatise  on  stalks)  has  three  chapters  on  the 
manner  in  which  the  stalks  of  fruit  become  unclean  by 
touching  other  fruit. 

In  the  later  editions  of  the  Talmud  the  Massekheth 
Makkotli   in   the   fourth   order   is   followed   by  six   little 


474  APPENDIX. 

niassikhtoth  of  more  recent  origin.     Tliey  are  the  follow- 

1.  Aboth  of  Rabbi  Nathan,  containing  forty-one  chap- 
ters of  moral  sentences  of  the  Jewisli  Fatiiers,  collected  by 
Kabbi  Nathan. 

2.  Sopherim  contains  twenty-one  chapters  of  instructions 
for  the  writers  of  the  Synagogue-rolls. 

3.  'Ebel  l?abbathi  has  fourteen  chapters  on  the  mourn- 
ing for  the  (lead. 

4.  Kallah  is  a  chapter  on  the  way  of  marrying. 

5.  IJerekh  'eretz  rabbah  contains  ten  chajiters  on  i)olite- 
uess. 

G.  Derekh  'eretz  suttah  has  six  chapters  on  the  same 
subject. 

This  whole  additional  part  is  closed  by  the  Perek  Sha- 
lom, or  the  chapter  on  peace. 

After  completing  the  Mishna  R.  Judah  continued  to 
explain  the  doctrine  it  contained,  and  a  number  of  his 
discii)les  wrote  the  explanations  in  order  to  fill  the  gaps 
still  left  in  the  records  of  tradition.  Among  the  Baby- 
lonian Jews  these  writings  do  not  seem  to  have  enjoyed 
great  authority;  in  Palestine  they  were  received  with  a  rev- 
erence equal  to  that  for  the  Mishna.  The  following  list 
gives  the  principal  additional  works: 

1.  Tosephta  (Supplement)  written  by  R.  Chiya  with  the 
assistance  of  Iloshaiya  (Ushaya),  Nechemia,  Bar  Kajijjara, 
Yanai,  and  Levi  ben  Sissi.  Tosephta  and  its  plural 
Tosephtoth  must  be  well  distinguished  from  the  Tosephoth 
or  marginal  notes  of  the  Talmud,  the  authors  of  which 
are  the  lia'ale  Tosephoth,  most  of  whom  lived  about  the 
thii-teenth  century  in  the  south  of  France. 

3.  liereshith-Rabba,  written  by  Rabbi  Iloshaiya  (Ushaya) 
and  distinct  from  the  Bereshith-Rabba,  or  Mi<lrash-Rabba, 
by  IJabba  bar  Nachincni  (see  l)elow,  n.  S). 

:{.  Bcraitoth,  jdural  of  Beraita  (Borayitoth,  Pxiraylab). 
means  "extraneous."  According  to  Buxtorf  this  name 
C(»nij»rist's  the  traditions  of  the  'I'aiiiiMim   written  outside 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE.  475 

of  Jerusalem;  Dracli  explains  the  name  as  indicating  that 
these  writings  are  outside  of  the  Mishna  proper.  Some 
of  these  were  composed  by  Hoshaiya  and  Bar  Kappara; 
others  by  Chiya  and  Hoshaiya;    others,  again,  by  Simeon. 

4.  Mechiltoth,  plural  of  Mechilta;  one  Mechilta,  an 
explanation  of  Ex.  xii.  3-xxxv.  3,  was  written  by  Rabbi  Is- 
mael,  and  is  preceded  by  the  thirteen  ways  of  Rabbinic 
reasoning.  Another  Mechilta,  an  explanation  of  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy,  was  written  by  beu 
Azai,  but  is  now  lost. 

5.  Siphra,  or  Torath  Cohanim  (the  book  or  law  of  priests), 
was  written  by  Rabbi  Judah,  probably  the  second  of  that 
name.     It  is  an  explanation  of  Leviticus. 

6.  Siphre  is  a  dogmatic  exposition  of  the  books  of  Num- 
bers and  Deuteronomy,  by  Rabbi  Nehemias. 

7.  Zohar  (Light)  Avas  composed,  or  at  least  begun,  by 
Rabbi  Simeon  ben  Yochai  and  R.  Abba,  tlie  Babylonian. 
It  is  a  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  and  has  been 
noticed  above  as  the  principal  book  of  the  systematic 
Kabbalah. 

8.  Midrash-Rabba  is  a  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch 
and  the  five  Meghilloth  (Canticles,  Ruth,  Lamentations, 
Eccles.,  Esther).  Rabba  bar  Nachmeni  is  assigned  as  its 
author.  The  commentaries  on  the  single  books  are  often 
indicated  by  the  first  word  of  the  respective  book  followed 
by  Rabba;  e.g.,  the  commentary  on  Genesis  by  Bereshith- 
Rabba  (cf.  n.  2). 

9.  A  number  of  Midrashim  on  separate  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  e.g. ,  the  Psalms,  Samuel,  etc. ;  also  the  Mishle 
on  Samuel,  Psalms,  and  Proverbs. 

10.  Midrash  Yalkut,  called  also  the  Midrash  Simeoni,  is 
a  modern  compilation  by  a  Jewish  preacher  for  the  use  of 
his  colleagues  (cf.  Israeli,  I'Eglise  et  la  Synagogue,  vol.  i. 
pp.  152  ff.). 

11.  Schottgen  (Jesus  dor  Messias,  p.  58)  adds  Pirqe 
Rabbi  Eliezer  on  Genesis  and  a  part  of  Exodus,  Pesikta 
Rabbetha  on  various  texts,  and  Pesikta  Sotarta,  comijiled. 


476  APPENDIX. 

or  "  zusiimmengetragen,"  as  Scbottgen  says,  out  of  the  lost 
Mechilta  (n.  4),  Siplira  (n.  5),  and  Siphrc  (n.  6). 

After  the  diverse  elements  of  oral  traditions  had  been  com- 
mitted to  writing  by  the  Tannaini,  the  succeeding  Jewish 
Rabbis  exerted  themselves  to  exiilain  these  writings, especial- 
ly the  principal  one  of  them,  the  Mishna.  The  doctors  who 
first  gave  these  explanations  and  collected  them  in  writings 
are  called  'Amoraim  (si)eakers,  coiumentators).  There  is  a 
twofold  collection  of  such  explanations,  the  one  made  by 
the  Palestinian  'Amoraim,  the  other  by  the  Babylonian ; 
the  former  is  called  the  Gemara  (Supplement)  of  Jerusalem, 
the  latter  the  Gemara  of  Babylon.  AVe  have  seen  that 
Rabbi  Judah  hakkadosh,  or  hannasi,  finished  the  Mishna 
between  190  and  220  a.d.  He  was  followed  by  Gamaliel 
III.  (ben  Judah)  as  president  of  the  school  in  Yamnia  and, 
according  to  the  Jews,  as  patriarch  of  Sepphoris.  Gamaliel 
was  as  proud  and  overbearing  as  he  was  learned,  and  on 
that  account  was  formally  deposed,  R.  Eliezer  being 
elected  in  his  place.  But  by  the  influence  of  R.  Joshua, 
R.  Akiba,  and  R.  Eliezer  himself,  Gamaliel  was  reinstated 
with  the  agreement  that  R.  Eliezer  sliould  every  third 
week  preside  oyer  and  moderate  the  scholastic  discus- 
sions. Buxtorf  and  other  scholars  maintain  that  it  was 
Gamaliel  II.  who  was  deposed,  and  who  held  after  his  re- 
instatement joint  authority  with  R.  Eliezer.  This  view 
avoids  a  number  of  serious  chronological  difficulties.  Gama- 
liel III.  was  succeeded  by  R.  Judah  IL,  who  transferred 
the  patriarchal  seat  from  Sepphoris  to  Tiberias.  His 
authority  was  so  great  tliat  he  obtained  the  title  of  Rabbi 
by  excellence,  and  of  Rabbanu.  Still  Rabbi  Yochanan 
ben  Eliezer  enjoyed  an  even  greater  authority,  and  is  by 
Maimonides  given  among  the  three  who  had  received  the 
esoteric  traditions  fnun  R.  .ludah  hakkadosh.  Yochanan 
is  said  to  have  finished  the  .lerusalcm  Gemara  about  270 
A.I),  (cf.  Drach,  1.  c,  vol.  1,  p.  101)  after  having  been  24 
years  Rector  of  the  Palestinian  Academy.  Ilillol,  the 
brother  of  Judah  II.,  excelled  in  the  Ilaggada,  or  the  his- 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE.  477 

torical  part  of  the  Old  Testament;  Origen  used  his  interpre- 
tations of  difficult  passages  and  highly  lauded  his  learning. 
After  the  time  of  Judah  II.  the  Palestinian  schools  be- 
came inferior  to  the  Babylonian.  The  most  renowned 
Palestinian  Rabbi  after  this  period  is  Rabbi  Abbahu ;  R. 
Ami,  R.  Assi,  R.  Chiya  beu  Abba,  and  R.  Seira  hardly  deserve 
mention.  The  succeeding  western  or  Palestinian  patri- 
archs are  Rabbi  Gamaliel  IV.,  Rabbi  Judah  III.,  R.  Hillel 
II.;  during  the  latter's  time  the  patriarchal  authority 
almost  wholly  jjerished,  since  he  ceased  to  indicate  even 
the  feast-days  and  published  the  general  rule  of  computing 
feasts.  Hillel  II.  was  followed  by  Gamaliel  V.,  R.  Judah 
IV.,  and  R.  Gamaliel  VI.  No  president  is  known  to  have 
succeeded  Gamaliel  VI. 

Ever  since  the  Babylonian  captivity,  the  Jewish  schools 
had  flourished  in  the  provinces  of  Babylon.  The  foremost 
seats  of  learning  were  Nahardea,  Firuz-Shabur,  Pumbeditha, 
Sura,  and  Machuza.  Here  the  exiled  Jews  held,  up  to  the 
eleventh  century  B.C.,  their  own  civil  authority.  A  line  of 
reputed  descendants  of  David  wielded  supreme  civil  power, 
and  enjoyed  externally  much  of  the  pomp  of  ancient 
royalty.  This  high  official  was  called  Resh-Glutha,  prince 
of  the  captivity,  and  he  enjoyed  the  honor  of  being  the 
fourth  highest  dignitary  in  the  realm.  Still,  in  theological 
lore  the  Babylonian  Jews  confessed  themselves  inferior  to 
their  Palestinian  brethren,  and  many  a  youth  left  the 
shores  of  the  Euphrates  in  order  to  learn  wisdom  in  the 
schools  of  Sej^phoris,  Jamnia,  or  Tiberias.  At  the  time 
when  Judah,  the  author  of  the  Mishna,  was  president,  his 
Babylonian  pupils  excelled  so  much  that  according  to 
tradition  the  master  communicated  the  esoteric  traditions 
to  two  Babylonians,  Abba  Areka,  commonly  called  Rab, 
and  Samuel,  while  only  one  Palestinian  pn])il,  the  above- 
named  Jochanan,  shared  this  privilege.  Here  then  we 
may  resume  the  chain  of  the  bearers  of  tradition,  the  ',VM\ 
link  of  which  was  R.  Judah,  the  author  of  the  Mishna. 

34.  Rab,  or  Abba  Areka,  and  Samuel;  Abba  Areka  was 


478  APPENDIX. 

immediately  after  his  return  from  Palestine  president  of 
the  school  of  Nahardea,  the  birth-place  of  Samuel,  to 
whom  he  yielded  this  office.  Rab  founded  the  school  of 
Sura,  and  was  its  first  president  from  219-247  a.d,  (cf, 
Buxtorf  under  "'Amoraim").  Mar  Samuel  succeeded  as 
president,  who  was  not  only  well  versed  in  the  Law,  but 
also  skilled  in  medicine  and  astronomy. 

35.  R.  llunna  (Rab  llanna)  must  have  been  one  of  the 
next  presidents  of  Sura;  he  is  named  among  the  most  re- 
nowned ^Amoraim.  Soon  after  his  accession  there  came 
troublous  times  for  Babylon,  which  was  then  devastated  by 
the  troops  of  Odenath,  husband  of  Queen  Zenobia.  Rablti 
Nachman  ben  Jacob  (and  R.  Chasda)  fiod  to  Pumbeditha, 
where  now  arose  a  new  school  of  learning  under  Naclim.-in 
as  president.  R.  Judah  ben  Jecheskel  gave  this  school 
great  lustre  by  accepting  its  presidency  after  Nachman. 
Rabba  ben  Nachman  succeeded  (309  a.d.),  and  he  was  fol- 
lowed by  Abayi. 

3G.  Ral)a,  the  next  president  of  Pumbeditha,  nmst  prob- 
ably be  identified  with  Rabl)a  bar  ('liana,  the  3()th  link  of 
the  tradition-bearers.  lie  was  followed  by  tlie  lU'esidents 
R.  Nachman  ben  Isaac,  R.  Papa,  and  R.  Chama,  whose 
office-time  falls  within  35G-377  a.d.  There  is  a  veil  of 
obscurity  thrown  over  the  following  presidents;  we  know, 
however,  that  R.  Zebid,  R.  Dimi,  Rafrem  ben  Papa,  R. 
Kahana,  Mar  Sutra,  R.  Acha  ben  Rabba,  and  R.  Gebiha 
Avere  inferior  to  the  above-named  rectors.  R.  Jose  became 
president  of  Pumbeditha  a])out  485  a.d. 

A1)out  the  same  tiuie  tluit  tlie  scliool  of  Pumbeditha  was 
founded  by  R.  Nachman  ben  Jacob,  the  scliool  of  Machuza 
was  cstal)lished  by  Rabba  ben  Abahu  (and  R.  Slieshet),  who 
liad  fied  from  Sura  on  account  of  the  same  inroad  of 
Odenath  into  l^abylon  which  had  occasioned  the  flight  of 
Nachman  and  R.  C'hasda.  Rabba  was  succeeded  by  R. 
Joseph  ben  Chiya,  and  he  by  R.  Abaya. 

37.  Rabba  ben  Joseph  ben  Cbaiua  succeeded  Abaya,  and 
is  given   by  Mainu)nides  as  the  37th  link  in  the  cliain  of 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE.  479 

tradition.  After  Eabba's  death  the  school  of  Machuza 
sank  below  its  former  level;  and  the  school  of  Sura,  from 
which  both  the  schools  of  Pumbeditha  and  of  Machuza  had 
sprung  forth,  resumed  its  former  leadership. 

38.  This  was  especially  tlie  case  under  the  iiresidency 
of  R.  Ashi  ben  R.  Semai;  he  rebuilt  the  old  Rabbinic 
edifices  at  Sura,  and  spent  over  fifty  years  in  explaining 
the  Mishna  and  collecting  material  referring  to  the  same, 
so  that  he  did  for  the  Babylonian  Gemara  what  Rabbi 
Judah  hannasi  had  done  for  the  Mishna.  After  Ashi's 
death  (427  A.D.),  Mar  Yemar  (Maremar)  became  president, 
and  after  him  Idi  ben  Abin  (432  a.d.),  Nachman  ben 
Ilunna  (452  A.D.),  and  Acha  (455). 

39.  R.  Acha  yielded  his  place  to  Mar,  the  returning  son 
of  the  above-named  R.  Ashi,  to  whom  and  Mar  Yemar  the 
esoteric  traditions  bad  been  confided.  Mar  ben  Ashi  faith- 
fully continued  the  work  of  his  father,  but  the  troublous 
times  which  the  Persian  Jews  had  to  endure  in  the  reign 
of  Firuz  (458-485  a.d.)  prevented  the  schools  from  exert- 
ing their  full  activity.  Mar  was  succeeded  by  Rabba  Taf- 
sah,  who  became  president  of  the  Academy  of  Sura.  He  is 
the  last  member  of  the  'Amoraim,  and  to  him  belongs  the 
lasting  glory  of  having  completed  the  Babylonian  Gemara. 
Buxtorf  places  its  official  sanction  in  a.ij.  499,  the  year  of 
Rabina's  death. 

According  to  Buxtorf,  Gemara  means  completion  or  sup- 
plement, since  it  completes  the  Mishna;  other  writers  de- 
rive the  word  from  the  Aramaaan  "  to  learn,"  so  that  it  is 
equivalent  to  Talmud  (doctrine), from  the  Hebrew  "lamad  " 
(to  learn).  Both  the  Jerusalem  and  the  Babylonian  Gemai'a 
are  written  in  Aramaic,  with  many  Persian,  Greek,  and 
Latin  words  intermixed.  Moreover,  the  Jerusalem  Gemara 
approaches  the  Syriac  in  its  style.  But  both  are  equally 
obscure  and  unpolished,  though  the  Babylonian  Gemara  is 
more  copious  in  its  explanations  than  that  of  Jerusalem. 
The  latter  is  preferred  by  Christians  by  reason  of  its  brev- 
ity and  freedom  from  absurdities  and  fables;  the  former  ig 


480  APPENDIX. 

always  used  by  the  Jews,  and  is  simply  called  the  Talmud; 
in  both  Talmuds  the  Mishna  and  its  respective  Geniara 
are  included. 

The  Jerusalem  Gemara  exphiins  all  the  treatises  of  the 
first  and  third  orders,  none  of  the  fifth,  and  only  Niddah 
of  the  sixth ;  in  the  second  order  the  last  four  chapters  of 
Shabbath  are  not  explained ;  in  the  fourth  the  treatises 
Eduyoth,  Aboth,  and  the  last  three  chapters  of  Makkoth  are 
wanting.  The  Babylonian  Gemara  explains  only  Berakhotii 
of  tlic  first  order;  in  the  explanation  of  the  second  order  it 
omits  Shekalim;  in  that  of  the  fourth  the  treatises  Aboth 
and  Eduyoth  are  lacking;  in  the  fifth  Middoth,  Kinnim, 
and  one  half  of  Taniid  are  not  explained;  Niddah  is  the 
only  treatise  of  the  sixth  order  that  has  been  t^onsidered  in 
tlie  Babylonian  Gemara,  while  the  whole  of  the  third  order 
has  been  ex})lained. 

It  was  probably  owing  to  the  obscurity  and  brevity  of  the 
Jerusalem  Gemara  that  the  eastern  Jewish  doctors  com- 
posed the  Babylonian.  It  is  said  that  R.  Ashi  had  four 
ends  in  view  when  he  began  his  great  work:  1.  He  in- 
tended to  investigate  the  grounds  of  the  contradictory  opin- 
ions contained  in  the  Mishna,  in  order  to  arrive  by  this 
process  at  the  true  or,  at  least,  at  the  more  probable  one. 
2.  Cases  of  doubt  were  to  be  settled  in  conformity  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  Tannaim  and  the  'Amoraim.  3.  The  deci- 
sions, the  enactments,  and  the  regulations  that  had  been 
passed  by  the  Rabbis  after  the  termination  of  the  Mishna 
were  to  be  recorded.  4.  A  number  of  current  allegorical 
commentaries,  of  parables,  legends,  and  mystic  instructions 
were  to  be  committed  to  writing.  It  is  especially  this  fourth 
element  that  has  caused  the  insertion  into  the  Gemara  of 
numy  absurd  and  ludicrous  stories  and  revolting  blasphe- 
mies (cf.  Drach,  TEglise  et  la  Synagogue,  vol.  i.  pp.  1G3  1). 

After  the  'Amoraim  a  series  of  Rabbis  followed,  called 
Seburaim,  or  "  opinionists,"  who  discussed  the  Mishnayoth 
(paragraphs  of  the  IVIishna)  by  means  of  ]irobable  and  dis- 
putable opinions,  several  of  which  have  later  been  copied 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE.  481 

into  the  text  of  the  Talmud.  It  seems  to  be  commonly 
agreed  that  the  Seburaim  did  not  last  longer  than  about 
sixty  years.  Hence,  according  to  the  chronology  that  we 
have  followed  in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  they  cover  the 
period  from  about  510  to  5G0  a.d.  But  Myer  and  others 
believe  that  the  "  opinionists "  reached  to  about  G50  a.d. 
The  Talmud  may  be  said  to  have  been  terminated  for  the 
second  and  last  time  with  the  Seburaim,  and  after  this 
period  Jewish  lore  necessarily  differed  from  what  it  had 
been  until  then. 

The  Rabbis  who  followed  the  Seburaim  are  called  Ge'onim 
(plural  of  Ga'on),  i.e.,  illustrious  ones.  Some  scholars  are 
of  opinion  that  the  name  Ga'on  was  a  mere  symbol,  its 
numerical  value  being  sixty,  by  which  number  the  Talmud 
was  often  indicated,  since  the  treatises  of  the  Mishna  might 
be  counted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  amount  to  that  inimber. 
Even  if  this  conjecture  is  historically  false,  it  indicates,  at 
least,  the  real  meaning  of  the  title  "  Ga'on."  He  alone 
could  claim  this  distinction  who  excelled  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  Talmud.  Formerly  the  knowledge  of  tradition  (of 
botli  tenets  and  commentary)  had  been  the  requisite  for  an 
academic  title;  now  the  Talmud  had  supplanted  tradition. 
The  last  Ga'on  seems  to  have  been  the  renowned  Rabbi 
Hai,  who  died  about  1038  a.d.  A  little  before  this  period 
(103G  A.D.)  the  Persian  king  had  j^ut  to  death  the  last 
Resh-Glutlia,  or  prince  of  the  captivity,  who  was  Hezekiah, 
grandson  of  David-ben-Zaccai,  of  David's  royal  blood.  The 
Babylonian  schools  of  Jewish  learning  were  now  closed 
forever,  most  of  its  Rabbis  emigratiiig  to  the  adjacent  coun- 
tries, and  especially  to  Spain.  The  Jewish  schools  of  Sjiain 
had  even  before  this  time  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  having 
a  Babylonian  president.  I.  Myer,  following  the  authority 
of  Rabbi  Abraham  ben  David  Ha-Levi  of  Toledo,  who  wrote 
the  Sepher  Ilakkabalah  about  11  GO  a.d.,  tells  us  (Qabbalah, 
Phila,,  1888,  p.  5)  that  Rabbi  Moses,  a  renowned  member 
of  the  school  of  Sura,  had  been  captured  with  three  other 
distinguished  Rabbis  when  sailing  from  Bari.     Ibn  Roma- 


482  APPENDIX. 

his,  commaiuler  of  the  navy  of  Abd  er-TJahman  an  Nasr 
(912-9G1  A.i).),  who  hud  effected  the  capture,  sold  the  four 
Rabbis  as  shives.  Moses  was  brought  to  Cordova  in  Spain, 
where  he  Avas  ransomed  as  a  supposed  ignorant  man.  Kabbi 
Nathan,  wlio  taught  in  the  Synagogue  "  Keneseth-ham- 
M  id  rash  "  at  Cordova,  soon  discovered  the  attainments  of 
Kabbi  Moses,  and  yielded  to  him  the  leadership  of  the  con- 
gregation. Moses'  son,  R.  Ila'noch,  followed  his  father  as 
leader  of  the  Cordova  school;  it  was  this  master  who  in- 
structed Samuel  hal-Levi  ben  Joseph  Ibn  Nagrela  (han- 
Nagid),  the  illustrious  prince-minister  of  Moorish  Spain 
(from  about  1 027-1 05G  A. I).). 

Saniuel's  services  to  Jewii^h  learning  are  too  manifold  to 
be  described  in  this  brief  outline,  lie  found  time  to  com- 
pose several  books  on  the  Talmud,  a  Jewish  history,  books 
on  proverbs,  prayers,  grammars,  etc.  He  systematized  a 
thorough  t'orrespondence  with  the  most  distinguished  Jews 
of  Syria,  Egypt,  Africa,  Irak,  and  other  parts  of  the  civil- 
ized world.  Numerous  copies  of  the  Talmud  and  the  Old 
Testament  were  transcribed  at  his  expense  and  preseiited 
to  the  poorer  students.  One  of  his  most  illustrious  pro- 
teges was  Solomon  ben  Jehudah  Ibn  Gebirol,  or  Avicebron, 
who  was  born  at  Malaga  about  1021  a.d.,  educated  at  Sara- 
gossa,  and  died  at  Valencia  about  1070.  His  poetry  is 
written  in  Ilebre^v,  his  philosoj)hy  in  Arabic.  The  Kether 
Malkuth  (Crown  of  the  Kingdom)  holds,  according  to  his 
own  opinion,  the  first  place  among  his  numerous  hymns. 
His  treatise  "On  the  Will  "  has  been  lost.  In  1045  he  wrote 
the  Tikkun  JM  id  doth  han-Nephesh  (the  correction  of  the 
manners  or  faculties  of  the  soul).  In  consequence  of  sev- 
eral personal  allusions  found  in  this  book,  Ibn  Cebirol  had 
to  leave  Saragossa  in  104G.  Another  celebrated  philosoph- 
ical treatise  of  the  same  author  is  Mekhor  Chayyim,  or  the 
Source  of  Life,  called  in  Latin  De  Materia  Universali,  or 
Fons  Vitct.  I'hen  followed,  according  to  ]\lyer  (o])us  cit. 
p.  38),  Jacob  Nazir  of  Lunel,  Abraham  Ab-beth-din,  Abra- 
ham ben  David  of  Rosquieres,  Isaac  the  Blind  of  Reaucaire, 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE.  483 

Azriel  and  Ezra,  Jehudah  ben  Yakar,  Jacob  ben  Sheslieth 
(about  1370  a.d.),  Todros  ben  Joseph  Hallevi  Abulafia, 
Abraham  ben  Samuel  Abulafia,  Nachmanides,  and  others. 

We  must  mention  several  other  Kabbis  of  about  the  same 
period,  who  attained  a  greater  name  than  these.  Rabbi 
Solomon  ben  Isaac,  known  also  by  the  technical  name  Rashi 
and  by  his  real  or,  as  some  think,  fictitious  family  name, 
Yarchi  This  latter  name  alludes  to  the  French  town 
Lunel.  Yarchi  was  born  at  Troyes  in  France,  about  1030 
A.D,;  he  lived,  according  to  some,  to  the  age  of  75,  accord- 
ing to  others  to  that  of  64  years.  Rabbi  Jacob  ben  Yakar, 
and  perhaps  R.  Gershom,  were  his  teachers.  Yarchi's  writ- 
ings comprise  commentaries  on  the  entire  Hebrew  Bible, 
on  the  Talmud,  and  the  Pirqc  Aboth. 

Another  remarkable  Rabbi,  Judah  ben  Hallevi  ben 
Samuel,  was  born  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  or  the  be- 
ginning of  the  twelfth  century.  He  endeavored  to  spread 
learning,  even  the  elementary  knowledge  of  the  Law,  by 
means  of  poetry,  in  which  he  is  said  to  have  surpassed  all 
the  writers  of  his  nation.  At  the  age  of  fifty,  after  a  pil- 
grimage to  the  Holy  Land,  he  bewailed  beneath  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem  the  lamentable  condition  of  his  people,  and 
was  trampled  to  death  under  the  hoofs  of  a  mounted  Arab's 
horse.  Judah  ben  Hallevi  is  probably  the  author  of  the 
Book  Cosri,  though  this  has  been  denied  by  several  later 
writers  on  Jewish  literature.  The  work  is  a  defence  of 
Rabbinical  Judaism  against  Philosophy,  Christianity,  Mo- 
hammedanism, and  Karaitism.  Its  form  is  almost  a  dia- 
logue between  King  Chosar  of  the  Chasars  (probably  Bulan) 
and  R.  Isaac  Sangari,  or  Sanger. 

R.  Abraham  ben  Meir  Ezra,  or  ben  Meir  ben  Ezra,  called 
Aben-Ezra  (grandson  of  Ezra),  was  born  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  twelfth  century.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of 
the  above-mentioned  Judah  ben  Hallevi,  whose  daughter 
he  also  married.  Besides  various  other  works  he  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  entire  Hebrew  Bible;  not  only  were 
the  Arabic  and  Hebrew  languages  mastered  by  him,  but  the 


484  APPENDIX. 

Iial)binic.'il  learning  and  the  pliilosopliy  of  his  time  were 
equally  in  his  possession.  Philosopher,  astronomer,  physi- 
cian, poet,  grammarian,  Qabbalist  and  interpreter  of  Sacred 
Scripture  as  he  was,  he  more  than  any  Jewish  Kabbi  de- 
served the  name  "  Ilachakham"  (the  wise).  He  died  at 
Rhodes,  a.d.  1194. 

The  most  illustrious  contemporary  of  Aben-Ezra  was  R. 
Moses  ben  Maimon,  generally  called  by  the  Jews  Rambam, 
and  by  the  learned  in  general  "  Maimonides."  Born  a.d. 
1139  at  Cordova,  he  left  his  paternal  home,  while  still  a 
youth,  because  of  some  ill-usage  that  he  had  suffered  from 
his  father,  lie  studied  the  Talmud  in  Lucena,  and  returned 
to  Cordova  only  after  attaining  the  age  of  manhood. 
Arabic,  astronomy,  mathematics,  and  medicine  he  learned 
in  the  school  of  Averroes,  otherwise  known  as  Abdallah 
]\I()hammed  Ebn  Omar  Ebn  Roshd.  Maimonides  wrote  an 
explanation  of  the  Mishiui  in  Arabic;  having  followed  in 
this  work  the  dictates  of  philosophy  rather  than  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Gemara,  he  was  accused  of  heresy  and  had  to 
seek  refuge  at  Cairo,  where  he  enjoyed  the  favor  and  pro- 
tection of  the  illustrious  Saladin.  He  spent  eight  years  in 
composing  his  principal  work,  known  by  the  names  "  Yad 
chazakah  "  (strong  hand)  and  "  Mishneh  Torah  "  (repeti- 
tion of  the  Law).  A  few  years  later  Maimonides  composed 
in  Arabic  his  Delalith  al  Hairin;  the  Hebrew  title  of  the 
work  is  "  More  hanncbokhim  "  (guide  of  the  perplexed). 
Hero  the  difficulties  of  Sacred  Scripture  are  solved,  and  its 
seeming  contradictions  explained,  without  the  aid  of  Rab- 
binic tradition  ami  fable.  Hence  a  new  cry  of  "heresy" 
rose  up  against  him  in  Spain;  the  book  was  publicly 
burned,  its  reading  prohibited,  and  for  forty  years  the  Rab- 
binic world  was  split  up  in  factions  for  and  against  Maimon- 
ides. The  author,  meanwhile,  peacefully  died  at  Cairo,  at 
the  age  of  75  years,  A.D.  r~I4. 

Long  before  Rambam's  death  was  born  R.  David  Kimchi, 
known  by  the  abbreviated  name  Raddak.  Several  writers 
place  his  birth-place  in  Narbonne;  Bartolocci  asserts  that 


RABBINIC  LITERATURE.  485 

his  birth-place  is  entirely  unknown ;  Wolf  is  of  opinion  that 
Raddak  was  a  Spaniard  by  birth,  and  lived  in  France.  The 
illustrious  Joseph  Kimchi  was  father,  and  the  still  more 
renowned  Moses  was  brother,  of  David  Kimchi.  Whether 
David  commented  on  the  Pentateuch  is  doubtful;  he  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  other  parts  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  a  He- 
brew grammar,  called  Michlol,  and  a  Lexicon,  called  Sepher 
Shorashim  (book  of  roots).  After  several  vain  attempts  to 
reconcile  the  friends  and  foes  of  JMaimonides,  Avhose  valiant 
defender  he  was,  David  Kimclii  died  in  Provence,  a. d.  1240. 
This  line  of  doctors  brings  the  Jewish  tradition  contained 
in  the  Zohar  down  to  the  time  when  even  that  book  was 
made  accessible  to  the  public.  For  those  scholars  who  deny 
its  early  authorship  by  the  pupils  of  K.  Simeon  ben  Yochai, 
esj)ecially  R.  Abba  the  Babylonian  (see  above),  generally 
maintain  that  R.  Mosheh  Shem  Tob  de  Leon  (a.d.  1250- 
1305)  composed  the  book  with  the  intent  of  deceiving  his 
readers  concerning  its  real  author.  The  whole  discussion 
of  the  Zohar's  authenticity  may  be  briefly  read  in  Myer's 
Qabbalah  (Phila.,  1888),  chajDters  1,  2,  3;  see  also  Ency- 
clopred.  Brit.,  edit.  9,  vol.  xvi.  pp.  286  f.,  the  Speaker's 
Commentary,  vol.  iv.  p.  388.  If  we,  therefore,  suppose  even 
the  most  unfavorable  view  to  be  the  ti-ue  one,  that  the 
Zohar  was  not  merely  edited  but  forged  by  R.  Mosheh  de 
Leon,  it  still  remains  true  that  the  book  expresses  the  tradi- 
tions received  in  all  the  Jewish  schools  of  the  time  as  the 
genuine  teaching  of  their  ancestors;  how  else  can  we  ac- 
count for  the  general  veneration  that  was  shown  to  the 
book  from  its  first  appearance  ?  Concerning  the  authori- 
ties for  and  against  the  Zohar's  antiquity,  see  Myer's  Qab- 
balah, pp.  10  f. 


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Manifestation  of  Conscience.  Confessions  and  Communions  in 
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Christ  in  type  and  prophecy. 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


1    1012  00007  2902 


